How foresight might support the behavioral flexibility of arthropods
Open accessAbstract
The small brains of insects and other invertebrates are often thought to constrain these animals to live entirely 'in the moment'. In this view, each one of their many seemingly hard-wired behavioral routines is triggered by a precisely defined environmental stimulus configuration, but there is no mental appreciation of the possible outcomes of one's actions, and therefore little flexibility. However, many studies show problem-solving behavior in various arthropod species that falls outside the range of fixed behavior routines. We propose that a basic form of foresight, the ability to predict the outcomes of one's own actions, is at the heart of such behavioral flexibility, and that the evolutionary roots of such outcome expectation are found in the need to disentangle sensory input that is predictable from self-generated motion versus input generated by changes in the outside world. Based on this, locusts, grasshoppers, dragonflies and flies seem to use internal models of the surrounding world to tailor their actions adaptively to predict the imminent future. Honeybees and orb-weaving spiders appear to act towards a desired outcome of their respective constructions, and the genetically pre-programmed routines that govern these constructions are subordinate to achieving the desired goal. Jumping spiders seem to preplan their route to prey suggesting they recognize the spatial challenge and actions necessary to obtain prey. Bumblebees and ants utilize objects not encountered in the wild as types of tools to solve problems in a manner that suggests an awareness of the desired outcome. Here we speculate that it may be simpler, in terms of the required evolutionary changes, computation and neural architecture, for arthropods to recognize their goal and predict the outcomes of their actions towards that goal, rather than having a large number of pre-programmed behaviors necessary to account for their observed behavioral flexibility.
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These capacities could enable ants to successfully reorientate having been blown away by a gust of wind, or construct complex routes or new motor sequences, as documented in bees, spiders and grasshoppers.
“This could enable ants to successfully reorientate having been blown away by a gust of wind [33], or construct complex routes or new motor sequences, such as has been documented in bees, spiders and grasshoppers [80].”
From Phenomenal interface theory: a model for basal consciousness (2025) · cites this paper as [80]
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- Authors
- Perry, C. J., & Chittka, L.
- Affiliations
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Perry, Clint J
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Neurobiology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-02
- Volume
- 54
- Pages
- 171-177
- ISSN
- 0959-4388 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2900787137
- Cited by
- 54
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 0.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Neurobiology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/P006094/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurobiology and Insect Physiology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Insect and Arachnid Ecology and Behavior
- Keywords
- foresight, behavioral flexibility, arthropods, outcome prediction, internal models, problem solving, locusts, grasshoppers, dragonflies, flies, Apis mellifera, Araneidae, Salticidae, bumblebees, ants, tool use, goal-directed behavior, insect cognition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Arthropods, Behavior, Animal, Biological Evolution, Extremities, Models, Biological, Movement
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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