The DOI matches its Crossref record; 52 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Storing information in-the-world: Metacognition and cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task
Abstract
We often store to-be-remembered information externally (e.g., written down on a piece of paper) rather than internally. In the present investigation, we examine factors that influence the decision to store information in-the-world versus in-the-head using a variant of a traditional short term memory task. In Experiments 1a and 1b participants were presented with to-be-remembered items and either had to rely solely on internal memory or had the option to write down the presented information. In Experiments 2a and 2b participants were presented with the same stimuli but made metacognitive judgments about their predicted performance and effort expenditure. The spontaneous use of external storage was related both to the number of items to be remembered and an individual's actual and perceived short-term-memory capacity. Interestingly, individuals often used external storage despite its use affording no observable benefit. Implications for understanding how individuals integrate external resources in pursuing cognitive goals are discussed.
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In the citing paper
“We chose to implement these tasks as the impact of working memory capacity on offloading has been controversially discussed in previous research (e.g., Morrison & Richmond, 2020; Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
In the citing paper
“(4) A higher intrinsic cognitive load leads to more offloading (see, e.g., Dong etal., 2022; Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
In the citing paper
“(2) Learners with a lower perceived working memory capacity also offload more information (Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
In the citing paper
“They demonstrated that short-term memory capacity, measured by performance in a “no-choice condition” of their task where participants were not permitted to offload, was inversely related to the frequency of offloading in the choice condition during which participants were able to choose whether or not to offload information.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“Recent work suggests that individuals who engage in offloading even when there is no objective performance benefit may be driven to do so by the incorrect belief that offloading will lead to better performance (Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
In the citing paper
“This pattern provides a direct replication of Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“These effects replicated those reported in Risko and Dunn (2015), and supported our hypotheses.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“This conclusion is supported by the absence of a significant short-term memory–offloading behavior relationship, representing a failure to replicate Risko and Dunn (2015)”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“An important point of departure from findings reported in Risko and Dunn (2015) in the current study is the lack of support for a relationship between internal memory ability and both offloading choice and benefit from offloading.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“performance on the auditory short-term memory task in our sample is overall lower than that reported in the sample obtained by Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
In the citing paper
“Given the opportunity to write information down, one might expect ceiling level performance at all memory loads. However, this effect was not obtained here, nor by Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
Citations
Cites
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“Human cognition often involves, as an integral part, the manipulation of the body and/or physical/social environment (e.g., Barrett, 2011; Clark & Chalmers, 1998; Goldin-Meadow, 2005; Hutchins, 1995; Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Pfeifer & Bongard, 2006; Zhang & Norman, 1994).”
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“Human cognition often involves, as an integral part, the manipulation of the body and/or physical/social environment (e.g., Barrett, 2011; Clark & Chalmers, 1998; Goldin-Meadow, 2005; Hutchins, 1995; Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Pfeifer & Bongard, 2006; Zhang & Norman, 1994).”
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(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.47-0788 · Cited by 2,205
Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips
Sparrow, B., Liu, J., & Wegner, D. M. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1207745 · Cited by 1,762 · cited 2×
“With respect to the memorial consequences of offloading, Sparrow et al. (2011) demonstrated that participants who typed to-be-remembered information into a computer that they expected would save the information remembered less than individuals who typed to-be-remembered information into a computer…”
BackgroundOn Distinguishing Epistemic from Pragmatic Action
Kirsh, D., & Maglio, P. (1994) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1804_1 · Cited by 1,641 · cited 1×
“Human cognition often involves, as an integral part, the manipulation of the body and/or physical/social environment (e.g., Barrett, 2011; Clark & Chalmers, 1998; Goldin-Meadow, 2005; Hutchins, 1995; Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Pfeifer & Bongard, 2006; Zhang & Norman, 1994).”
BackgroundRepresentations in Distributed Cognitive Tasks
Zhang, J., & Norman, D. A. (1994) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1801_3 · Cited by 1,203 · cited 1×
“Human cognition often involves, as an integral part, the manipulation of the body and/or physical/social environment (e.g., Barrett, 2011; Clark & Chalmers, 1998; Goldin-Meadow, 2005; Hutchins, 1995; Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Pfeifer & Bongard, 2006; Zhang & Norman, 1994).”
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Nelson, 1990, Metamemory: A theoretical framework and some new findings, Vol. 26, 125
Cited by
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Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 · Cited by 1,502
“, external normalization [9], prospective memory [10], short-term memory [28], co-speech gesture [29], and co-thought gesture [13]; representative examples are given in Figure 2).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationEmbodied learning: introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration
Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-018-0092-9 · Cited by 385
“…note that cognitive offloading does not require elaborate interactions or a high degree of bodily activity, as some of these studies investigate rather basic questions such as under which circumstances humans prefer methods of non-mental information storage using pen and paper (Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
BackgroundThe digital expansion of the mind: Implications of internet usage for memory and cognition.
Marsh, E. J., & Rajaram, S. (2019) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.11.001 · Cited by 186
Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory
Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211008060 · Cited by 147
“We chose to implement these tasks as the impact of working memory capacity on offloading has been controversially discussed in previous research (e.g., Morrison & Richmond, 2020; Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
MethodConfidence guides spontaneous cognitive offloading
Boldt, A., & Gilbert, S. J. (2019) · Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-019-0195-y · Cited by 105
Metadata
- Authors
- Risko, E. F., & Dunn, T. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Risko, Evan F.
- Venue
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-11
- Volume
- 36
- Pages
- 61-74
- ISSN
- 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W583781945
- Semantic Scholar
- f913307a38ec302998f9aa034c9d6a2d55dba89f
- Cited by
- 193
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 5.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- cognitive offloading, external memory, metacognition, short-term memory, memory capacity, metacognitive judgments, effort expenditure
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adult, Auditory Perception, Choice Behavior, Humans, Individuality, Memory, Short-Term, Psychomotor Performance, Young Adult
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