Storing information in-the-world: Metacognition and cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task
Abstract
We often store to-be-remembered information externally (e.g., written down on a piece of paper) rather than internally. In the present investigation, we examine factors that influence the decision to store information in-the-world versus in-the-head using a variant of a traditional short term memory task. In Experiments 1a and 1b participants were presented with to-be-remembered items and either had to rely solely on internal memory or had the option to write down the presented information. In Experiments 2a and 2b participants were presented with the same stimuli but made metacognitive judgments about their predicted performance and effort expenditure. The spontaneous use of external storage was related both to the number of items to be remembered and an individual's actual and perceived short-term-memory capacity. Interestingly, individuals often used external storage despite its use affording no observable benefit. Implications for understanding how individuals integrate external resources in pursuing cognitive goals are discussed.
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The impact of working memory capacity on offloading has been controversially discussed in previous research.
“We chose to implement these tasks as the impact of working memory capacity on offloading has been controversially discussed in previous research (e.g., Morrison & Richmond, 2020; Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
A higher intrinsic cognitive load leads to more offloading.
“(4) A higher intrinsic cognitive load leads to more offloading (see, e.g., Dong etal., 2022; Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
Learners with a lower perceived working memory capacity also offload more information.
“(2) Learners with a lower perceived working memory capacity also offload more information (Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
Short-term memory capacity, measured by performance in a no-choice condition, is inversely related to frequency of offloading in a choice condition.
“They demonstrated that short-term memory capacity, measured by performance in a “no-choice condition” of their task where participants were not permitted to offload, was inversely related to the frequency of offloading in the choice condition during which participants were able to choose whether or not to offload information.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
Individuals who engage in offloading even when there is no objective performance benefit may be driven to do so by the incorrect belief that offloading will lead to better performance.
“Recent work suggests that individuals who engage in offloading even when there is no objective performance benefit may be driven to do so by the incorrect belief that offloading will lead to better performance (Risko & Dunn, 2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko & Dunn, 2015
The pattern of results provides a direct replication of Risko and Dunn (2015).
“This pattern provides a direct replication of Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
The effects of condition, memory load, and their interaction replicated those reported in Risko and Dunn (2015).
“These effects replicated those reported in Risko and Dunn (2015), and supported our hypotheses.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
The absence of a significant short-term memory-offloading behavior relationship represents a failure to replicate Risko and Dunn (2015).
“This conclusion is supported by the absence of a significant short-term memory–offloading behavior relationship, representing a failure to replicate Risko and Dunn (2015)”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
An important point of departure from findings reported in Risko and Dunn (2015) is the lack of support for a relationship between internal memory ability and both offloading choice and benefit from offloading.
“An important point of departure from findings reported in Risko and Dunn (2015) in the current study is the lack of support for a relationship between internal memory ability and both offloading choice and benefit from offloading.”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
Performance on the auditory short-term memory task in this sample was overall lower than that reported in the sample obtained by Risko and Dunn (2015).
“performance on the auditory short-term memory task in our sample is overall lower than that reported in the sample obtained by Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
Ceiling-level performance was not obtained on offloaded trials; errors were observed on offloaded trials.
“Given the opportunity to write information down, one might expect ceiling level performance at all memory loads. However, this effect was not obtained here, nor by Risko and Dunn (2015).”
From Offloading items from memory: individual differences in cognitive offloading in a short-term memory task (2020) · cites this paper as Risko and Dunn (2015)
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- Authors
- Risko, E. F., & Dunn, T. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Risko, Evan F.
- Venue
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-11
- Volume
- 36
- Pages
- 61-74
- ISSN
- 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W583781945
- Semantic Scholar
- f913307a38ec302998f9aa034c9d6a2d55dba89f
- Cited by
- 193
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 5.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- cognitive offloading, external memory, metacognition, short-term memory, memory capacity, metacognitive judgments, effort expenditure
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adult, Auditory Perception, Choice Behavior, Humans, Individuality, Memory, Short-Term, Psychomotor Performance, Young Adult
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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