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What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures
Open accessAbstract
The importance of compassion is widely recognized and it is receiving increasing research attention. Yet, there is lack of consensus on definition and a paucity of psychometrically robust measures of this construct. Without an agreed definition and adequate measures, we cannot study compassion, measure compassion or evaluate whether interventions designed to enhance compassion are effective. In response, this paper proposes a definition of compassion and offers a systematic review of self- and observer-rated measures. Following consolidation of existing definitions, we propose that compassion consists of five elements: recognizing suffering, understanding the universality of human suffering, feeling for the person suffering, tolerating uncomfortable feelings, and motivation to act/acting to alleviate suffering. Three databases were searched (Web of Science, PsycInfo, and Medline) and nine measures included and rated for quality. Quality ratings ranged from 2 to 7 out of 14 with low ratings due to poor internal consistency for subscales, insufficient evidence for factor structure and/or failure to examine floor/ceiling effects, test-retest reliability, and discriminant validity. We call our five-element definition, and if supported, the development of a measure of compassion based on this operational definition, and which demonstrates adequate psychometric properties.
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“Thus, the translated scale can be used to provide a total score assessing “compassion for others” comprising of five factors which aligns with the authors’ theoretical understanding of compassion [24,34].”
From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“These findings are consistent with existing literature supporting the association of self-compassion with higher levels of mindfulness and well-being, and lower levels of psychological distress and insecure attachment [17,18,24,116–119].”
From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
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“Theoretical conceptualizations of compassion emphasize that individuals must be able to tolerate the distress they feel in response to another’s suffering in order to effectively enact helping behaviors (Strauss et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Strauss et al., 2016
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“Self‐compassion encompasses elements of mindfulness, as the first step in being compassionate is to be aware and acknowledge suffering, with an open, nonjudging attitude and non‐reactivity (Gilbert 2020; Neff 2003a; Strauss et al. 2016).”
From The Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Psychological Outcomes in Adult Populations: A Systematic Review. (2025) · cites this paper as Strauss et al. 2016
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Strauss, C., Lever Taylor, B., Gu, J., Kuyken, W., Baer, R., Jones, F., & Cavanagh, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Warneford Hospital (GB)
- University of Kentucky (US)
- Canterbury Christ Church University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Strauss, Clara
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-07
- Volume
- 47
- Pages
- 15-27
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2395884151
- Cited by
- 1,021
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 156 · 2024: 143 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 96 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 6.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Create (Canterbury Christ Church University) (acceptedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (1362793)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Empathy and Medical Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- compassion, psychometric properties, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Empathy, Humans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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