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From Mendel to epigenetics: History of genetics
Open accessAbstract
The origins of genetics are to be found in Gregor Mendel's memoir on plant hybridization (1865). However, the word ‘genetics’ was only coined in 1906, to designate the new science of heredity. Founded upon the Mendelian method for analyzing the products of crosses, this science is distinguished by its explicit purpose of being a general ‘science of heredity’, and by the introduction of totally new biological concepts (in particular those of gene, genotype, and phenotype). In the 1910s, Mendelian genetics fused with the chromosomal theory of inheritance, giving rise to what is still called ‘classical genetics’. Within this framework, the gene is simultaneously a unit of function and transmission, a unit of recombination, and of mutation. Until the early 1950s, these concepts of the gene coincided. But when DNA was found to be the material basis of inheritance, this congruence dissolved. Then began the venture of molecular biology, which has never stopped revealing the complexity of the way in which hereditary material functions. Résumé La génétique puise ses origines dans le mémoire de Mendel sur l’hybridation des plantes (1865). Le mot « génétique » ne fut cependant introduit qu’en 1906 pour désigner la nouvelle science de l’hérédité. Fondée sur la méthode mendélienne d’analyse des produits de croisements, cette science se distingue par son but explicite — être une science générale de l’hérédité —, et par l’introduction de concepts biologiques totalement nouveaux (notamment ceux de gène, de génotype et de phénotype). Dans les années 1910, la génétique mendélienne a fusionné avec la théorie chromosomique de l’hérédité pour donner ce qu’on appelle toujours aujourd’hui la « génétique classique ». Dans ce cadre, le gène est tout à la fois une unité de fonction et de transmission, une unité de recombinaison, une unité de mutation. Jusque dans les années 1950, ces concepts du gène coïncident. Mais lorsqu’on découvre que l’ADN est la base matérielle de l’hérédité, cette unité se dissout. Commence alors l’aventure de la biologie moléculaire qui, de 1953 jusqu’à aujourd’hui, ne va cesser de complexifier notre connaissance du fonctionnement physiologique du matériau héréditaire.
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TL;DR
This historical essay traces genetics from Mendel's 1865/1866 memoir on plant hybridization through the coining of the term "genetics" in 1906, the fusion of Mendelian and chromosomal theories into "classical genetics," and the molecular revolution that dissolved the classical concept of the gene. Gayon argues that genetics has not been "replaced" by molecular biology but that the relevance of the gene concept is a matter of scientific context.
Key findings
- The word "genetics" was proposed by William Bateson (in a 1905 letter to Adam Sedgwick, and publicly at the 1906 third International Conference on Plant Hybridization) to designate "the science of heredity and variation"; the paper argues no single birth date for genetics is defensible (1866, 1900, 1902, and 1906 are each candidates).
- In classical genetics (roughly 1915–1950), the gene was simultaneously a unit of function, a unit of recombination, and a unit of mutation; these three notions "coexisted harmoniously (or almost)" until DNA was identified as the hereditary material.
- Seymour Benzer's work on bacteriophage T4 in the mid-1950s to early 1960s showed recombination and mutation can occur at many sites within a single gene, leading to the "cistron" concept and the dissolution of the unified classical gene; in the molecular context the mutation unit is the nucleotide, the recombination unit two adjacent nucleotides, and the functional unit a nucleotide sequence.
- Recent genomic data cited: 98.5% of the human genome is not translated into proteins but more than 70% is transcribed into RNA; 70,000 promoter regions and 400,000 enhancers have been identified, suggesting information far beyond the usual picture of 20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes.
- On epigenetics, the paper notes no consensus definition; the NIH "Epigenomics Mapping Consortium" definition is quoted as covering "both heritable changes in gene activity and expression... and also stable, long-term alterations in the transcriptional potential of a cell that are not necessarily heritable." Methylation patterns may be transmissible and function as alleles; histone modifications are not transmissible.
- Institutionalization data: chairs devoted to genetics (Punnett, UK, 1912; Baur, Germany, 1913; Serebrovsky, USSR, 1930); journals Journal of Genetics (1910) and Hereditas (1920); 18 textbooks in English and 7 in German between 1902 and 1918, none in French.
Methods
- Design: narrative historical and conceptual review, published in a special issue ("Trajectories of genetics, 150 years after Mendel") of Comptes Rendus. Biologies.
- Data or sample: no empirical dataset; the analysis draws on the published historical record, including Mendel's memoir (1866), Bateson's 1902 book, Morgan et al.'s The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity (1915), Beadle and Tatum (1941), Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944), Watson and Crick (1953), Benzer's T4 work, and Jacob and Monod's lactose operon work.
- Main analysis: chronological reconstruction of the concept of the gene across four phases — Mendelian, classical/chromosomal, molecular, and post-genomic/epigenetic — concluding that theoretical frameworks partially overlap rather than replace one another.
Limitations
- Stated by the paper: the author notes that the complex intellectual history behind the institutional founding of genetics "cannot be given here in detail," and that the "extraordinary harvest" of molecular biology discoveries of the 1950s–1960s will not be detailed; the list of phenomena challenging the coding-sequence definition of the gene is described as "only a partial list."
- Evident from the text: this is a synthetic historical essay without systematic search or selection criteria for the episodes and sources discussed, so coverage is selective and reflects the author's interpretive choices; the paper also reports an anecdote (François Jacob's reply at a 2000 conference) that is not independently documented in the text.
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Claims the paper makes
16 No basis given · 7 No full text of the sources · 6 Own interpretation · 5 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“In alternative splicing, a given ‘split gene’ can code for various different proteins, depending on whether this or that exon is expressed at a given time”
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“The invention of recombining DNA technologies (commonly called ‘genetic engineering’) in the late 1970s has led to an impressive list of discoveries, which have rendered the hope of finding a non ambiguous molecular definition of the gene more and more unlikely. These discoveries include the discovery of split genes, which was certainly what first led molecular biologists to recognize the limits”
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“Johannsen was responsible for the standard meaning of the ‘term’ gene that dominated until the emergence of the molecular concept of the gene: no more than a ‘calculating unit’ intervening in Mendelian crosses, with no morphological hypothesis about the nature of the Mendelian determinants.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] [6] Johannsen, W. Elemente der Exakten Erblickeitslehre, Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1909
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In the paper
“Similarly, in biology, genetics remains indispensable at certain level of description, especially when heredity rather than physiological functioning is the key problem: evolutionary biology and medical genetics are obvious examples of this situation.”
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In the paper
“A decisive step for the connection of genetics with biochemistry was Beadle and Tatum's 1941 paper ‘Genetic control of biochemical reactions in Neurospora’, which offered the first proof that a specific gene controls a biochemical reaction (namely the production of vitamin B6).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] [9] Beadle, G.W.; Taum, E.L. Genetic control of biochemical reactions in Neurospora, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., Volume 27 (1941), pp. 499-506 source
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In the paper
“This genetic concept of the gene proved immensely useful to a number of molecular biologists, in particular François Jacob and Jacques Monod, who used it abundantly in the experiments that led them to the discovery of the lactose operon, which offered the first effective model of how the expression of genes is controlled.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] [15] Jacob, F.; Monod, J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of protein, J. Mol. Biol., Volume 3 (1961), pp. 318-356 source
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In the paper
“But it was only after Francis Crick and James Watson's discovery in 1953 of the structure of the DNA molecule that DNA became the molecule that carries the hereditary properties.”
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In the paper
“Benzer was quick to conclude that his experiments meant the dissolution of the traditional characterization of the gene as being simultaneously a unit of function, a unit of recombination, and a unit of mutation.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] [14] Greenspan, R.J. Seymour Benzer (1921-2007), Curr. Biol., Volume 18 (2008), p. R106-R110 source
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In the paper
“The origins of genetics are to be found in Gregor Mendel's memoir on plant hybridization (1865).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] [1] Mendel, G. Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden, Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn, Volume 4 (1866), pp. 3-47
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In the paper
“This experiment showed that purified DNA extracted from a dead virulent pneumococcus was able to ‘transform’ a non-virulent strain of pneumococcus (a bacterium able to cause acute pneumonia) into a virulent strain.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] [12] Avery, O.; MacLeod, C.; McCarty, M. Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus Type III, J. Exp. Med., Volume 79 (1944), pp. 137-158 source
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In the paper
“In reality, there is no consensus about the definition of epigenetics. This is why the ‘Epigenomics Mapping Consortium’ of NIH (National Institutes of Health, USA) recently defined epigenetics in order to give room to both heritable and non-heritable changes”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] [20] ‘Roadmap Epigenomics Project’ ‘Overview’, 2010 http://www.roadmapepigenomics.org/
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In the paper
“on the occasion of the third International Conference on Plant hybridization, Bateson proposed that the new science of heredity based on Mendel's laws be named ‘genetics’. This proposal was enthusiastically approved”
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In the paper
“As early as 1902, Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri proposed to consider the chromosomes as the bearers of the Mendelian factors. They rightly thought that the process of meiosis, that is to say the two successive cell divisions leading from a diploid cell to the four haploid cells that generate the gametes, was the basis for Mendel's laws of segregation and reassortment”
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In the paper
“Mendel's experimental work on peas was crucial, but only in a methodological sense. Mendel's intention was not to offer general laws of heredity, but only a ‘law of the development of hybrids’ in plants”
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In the paper
“This book also introduced a technical vocabulary that rapidly became indispensable for all Mendelians: ‘allelomorph’ (or, more simply, ‘allele’), ‘homozygote’, and ‘heterozygote’; these terms imply that for a given character transmitted in a Mendelian way, each individual has two (and exactly two) physical versions of the same hereditary element — an idea that Mendel did not suggest”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2] [2] Bateson, W. A Defence of Mendel's Principles of Heredity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1902
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In the paper
“In a letter to his colleague Adam Sedgwick in 1905, the English biologist William Bateson (1861–1926) used the word ‘genetics’ to designate ‘the science of heredity and variation’.”
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In the paper
“In the context of chromosomal genetics, a gene is also a unit of recombination (intra-chromosomal recombination resulting from crossing-overs). And finally, Muller's X-ray induced mutagenesis experiments introduced the notion that a gene is a unit of mutation. Remarkably, these three notions coexisted harmoniously (or almost) until the discovery that genes are made of DNA.”
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In the paper
“In 1915 this led him to publish, with three other colleagues, all of whom became major geneticists, what is probably the most important book in the entire history of genetics, The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity [7].”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] [7] Morgan, T.H.; Sturtevant, A.H.; Muller, H.J.; Bridges, C.B. The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, Henry Holt, New York, 1915 (Trad. fr. Le mécanisme de l’hérédité mendélienne. Lamertin, Bruxelles) source
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In the paper
“The common feature of these changes is their stability, but this stability is more or less pronounced: some epigenetic modifications are transmissible from one generation to another while others are not. Some patterns of methylation seem to be transmissible, and therefore function as alleles, from a genetic point of view. Histone modifications are not transmissible.”
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In the paper
“The term ‘pangene’ is the origin of Wilhelm Johannsen's ‘gene’, proposed in 1909 in the important book where he also introduced the words ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’ [6].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] [6] Johannsen, W. Elemente der Exakten Erblickeitslehre, Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1909
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In the paper
“Benzer proposed to adopt it as the basis for the definition of the new concept of the gene that he proposed, in replacement of the obsolescent ‘classical concept’, the ‘cistron’ concept. A cistron is a unit of genetic function, identified by applying a cis-trans test.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] [14] Greenspan, R.J. Seymour Benzer (1921-2007), Curr. Biol., Volume 18 (2008), p. R106-R110 source
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In the paper
“In the 1920s, the chromosomal theory had become an essential part of genetics and it gave a more material flavor to genetics. In the new theoretical framework, the genes had spatial significance: they were located on chromosomes, and they occupied a precise location each relative to the others: their ‘genetic distance’ could be calculated on the basis of the proportion of crossing overs.”
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In the paper
“The original idea, proposed triumphantly around 1960, was that a gene is no more nor less than a DNA sequence that codes for the amino-acid sequence of a protein (or, more generally, a polypeptide).”
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In the paper
“In the following years, still working on the mold Neurospora crassa, they showed that a single gene controls each step in a metabolic pathway. This led to the famous ‘one gene–one enzyme hypothesis’ [10].”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] [10] Horowitz, N.K. The one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, Genetics, Volume 33 (1948), pp. 612-613 source
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In the paper
“In the new molecular context, the typical mutation unit is the nucleotide; the recombination unit consists of two adjacent nucleotides; and the functional unit is the sequence of nucleotides able to perform a physiological function”
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In the paper
“Today, many molecular processes are known that challenge the traditional ‘one gene-one protein’ dogma. In reality, it seems hopeless to provide a general definition of the gene on the basis of exclusively molecular criteria”
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In the paper
“Mendel's memoir remained largely unknown until 1900, when his ‘laws’ (plural instead of singular) were rediscovered.”
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In the paper
“After the pioneering work of Herman Muller in the 1920s on the effect of X-rays on Drosophila, a genetic mutation was defined as a local alteration of a chromosome: a particular allele was transformed into another one, the ‘mutant gene’.”
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In the paper
“These findings suggest that the information contained in our genome goes far beyond the usual picture of 20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes. There are many more functional units than those protein-coding genes.”
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In the paper
“Benzer showed that recombination (crossing over) can occur in many places within a single gene, and this allowed him to discover the fine molecular structure of the gene. Simultaneously, Benzer showed that mutation events could also affect a given gene at many sites. This was the origin of the notion of ‘punctual mutation’”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] [14] Greenspan, R.J. Seymour Benzer (1921-2007), Curr. Biol., Volume 18 (2008), p. R106-R110 source
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In the paper
“One is Hugo de Vries’ use of the words ‘pangenesis’ and ‘pangene’ in a book published in 1889 as Intracellular Pangenesis [4,5]. In this book, De Vries supported the existence of hereditary particles in all the cells of an organism. For these particles, he coined the word ‘pangene’”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] [4] De Vries, H. Intracellulare pangenesis, Gustav Fischer, Jena Gustav Fischer, 1910 (English translation: Intracellular Pangenesis. Open Court, Chicago, Trad. partielle en français dans [5])
- Not checked yetcites [5] [5] Lenay, C. La découverte des lois de l’hérédité: une anthologie (1862-1900), Presses Pocket, Paris, 1990
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In the paper
“Bateson's 1902 book was certainly a key event, because it showed that Mendel's first law (the law of segregation, applying to just one character) applied not only to plants but also to animals; Bateson also defended that the Mendelian laws of hybridization did not apply only to the results of crosses between individuals of distinct varieties or species, but to a huge number of individual”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2] [2] Bateson, W. A Defence of Mendel's Principles of Heredity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1902
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In the paper
“In the mid-1930s, genetics was conventionally subdivided into three major sub-disciplines: formal genetics proper; population genetics, which provided the main theoretical basis for the Modern Synthesis; and physiological genetics, the aim of which is to study how the genes produce their effects”
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Recent data show that 98.5% of our genome is not translated into proteins, but more than 70% is transcribed into RNA. Furthermore, 70,000 promoter regions (the sites where proteins bind to control gene expression) and 400,000 enhancers (regulatory sites that affect the expression of distant genes) have been discovered in the human genome [17].”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [17] [17] Maher, B. The human encyclopaedia, Nature, Volume 489 (2012), pp. 46-48 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the word ‘genetics’ was only coined in 1906, to designate the new science of heredity.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866–1945), who was the main architect of the fusion between Mendelian genetics and the chromosomal theory, did not accept the former in the early 1900s. In 1908, however, he began working on heredity with Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), using both the chromosomal theory of heredity and Mendelian genetics.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For instance, William Bateson, in a sense the founding father of genetics, never accepted this theory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Split genes, commonly found in eukaryotes and viruses, are genes composed of a succession of exons (some of which corresponding in part or in totality to coding sequences) and introns (or intervening sequences eliminated after splicing of the exons at the RNA level).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 5 The emergence of molecular genetics
“Beadle and Tatum's 1941 paper ‘Genetic control of biochemical reactions in Neurospora’”
§ References
“[9] G.W. Beadle; E.L. Taum Genetic control of biochemical reactions in Neurospora, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., Volume 27 (1941), pp. 499-506”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Abstract
“the word ‘genetics’ was only coined in 1906”
§ 1 Introduction: ‘Genetics’
“In a letter to his colleague Adam Sedgwick in 1905, the English biologist William Bateson (1861–1926) used the word ‘genetics’”
Citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [4] De Vries, H. Intracellulare pangenesis, Gustav Fischer, Jena Gustav Fischer, 1910 (English translation: Intracellular Pangenesis. Open Court, Chicago, Trad. partielle en français dans [5])
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gayon, J.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Gayon, Jean
- Venue
- Comptes Rendus. Biologies
- Publisher
- MathDoc/Centre Mersenne
- Published
- 2016-06-02
- Volume
- 339
- Issue
- 7-8
- Pages
- 225-230
- ISSN
- 1631-0691 (ISSN-L)
- 1768-3238
- OpenAlex
- W2414410915
- Cited by
- 160
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 36.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Comptes Rendus Biologies (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biology Reports (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Natural History
- Keywords
- history of genetics, Gregor Mendel, Mendelian inheritance, epigenetics, heredity (biology), gene concept, genotype and phenotype, classical genetics, plant hybridization
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Genes, Genetics, Humans, Molecular Biology, Plants, History, 19th Century, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Epigenomics
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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