Cited by 525HIV, Drug Use, Sexual RiskOpioid Use Disorder TreatmentSubstance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes

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Strategies used by people who inject drugs to avoid stigma in healthcare settings

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Biancarelli, Dea L., Biello, Katie B., Childs, Ellen, Drainoni, M., Salhaney, Peter, Edeza, Alberto, Mimiaga, Matthew J, Saitz, Richard, Bazzi, Angela R.·2019·Drug and Alcohol Dependence

DOI 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.037PMC PMC6521691

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Abstract

Background People who inject drugs (PWID) have limited engagement in healthcare services and report frequent experiences of stigma and mistreatment when accessing services. This paper explores the impact of stigma against injection drug use on healthcare utilization among PWID in the U.S. Northeast.Methods We recruited PWID through community-based organizations (CBOs; e.g., syringe service programs). Participants completed brief surveys and semi-structured interviews lasting approximately 45 min exploring HIV risk behaviors and prevention needs. Thematic analysis examined the emergent topic of stigma experiences in relation to healthcare utilization.Results Among 33 PWID (55% male; age range 24-62 years; 67% White; 24% Latino), most used heroin (94%) and injected at least daily (60%). Experiences of dehumanization in healthcare settings were common, with many participants perceiving that they had been treated unfairly or discriminated against due to their injection drug use. As participants anticipated this type of stigma from healthcare providers, they developed strategies to avoid it, including delaying presenting for healthcare, not disclosing drug use, downplaying pain, and seeking care elsewhere. In contrast to large institutional healthcare settings, participants described non-stigmatizing environments within CBOs, where they experienced greater acceptance, mutual respect, and stronger connections with staff.Conclusions Stigma against injection drug use carries important implications for PWID health. Increased provider training on addiction as a medical disorder could improve PWID healthcare experiences, and integrating health services into organizations frequented by PWID could increase utilization of health services by this population.

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Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity
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“Stigma, defined by Goffman as a “deeply discrediting attribute,” is well researched among the larger population of people who use illicit drugs (Goffman, 1963; Kulesza et al., 2013).”
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“Although little research has focused on building resilience among PWID, some group therapy interventions have demonstrated modest efficacy in building resilience among people living with mental illness and HIV (Corrigan et al., 2009; Mittal et al., 2012; Rao et al., 2018).”
Background
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“interventions could help increase cultural competency and decrease stigma towards PWID at multiple levels within health organizations, such models require further research and evaluation (Brener et al., 2017; Livingston et al., 2012).”
Background
Stigma, discrimination and the health of illicit drug users
Ahern, J., Stuber, J., & Galea, S. (2006) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.10.014 · Cited by 860 · cited 2×
“Internalized stigma carries harmful effects on health and wellbeing (Ahern et al., 2007; Cama et al., 2016; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2013; Kamaradova et al., 2016; Luoma et al., 2007; Rivera et al., 2014; Skeer et al., 2018; von Hippel et al., 2018).”
Background

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Background
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Influential
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“The video also incorporated a stigma reduction component by concluding with a brief testimonial of an opioid overdose survivor who had been resuscitated with naloxone [37].”
Background
Opportunities and Challenges: Hepatitis C Testing and Treatment Access Experiences Among People in Methadone and Buprenorphine Treatment During COVID-19, Arizona, 2021
Meyerson, B. E., Russell, D. M., Downer, M., Alfar, A., Garnett, I., Lowther, J., Lutz, R., Mahoney, A. N., Moore, J., Nuñez, G., et al. (2022) · AJPM Focus · doi:10.1016/j.focus.2022.100047 · Cited by 3
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“Due to stigma in healthcare—and potential compounding factors like lack of insurance, housing instability, discrimination, and racism—PWUD are less likely to access routine, preventative care (Biancarelli et al. 2019).”
Background
The Pursuit of Dignity: A Qualitative Study of People Using Drugs’ Experiences of the Relocation and Reopening of a Public Gathering Place (“Open Drug Scene”)
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Colwill, J. P., Sherman, M., Siedlecki, S. L., Burchill, C. N., & Siegmund, L. A. (2020) · Applied Nursing Research · doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2020.151390 · Cited by 3
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Background
Social determinants of injection drug use-associated bacterial infections and treatment outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysisPreprint
Brothers, T. D., Lewer, D., Bonn, M., Kim, I., Comeau, E. M., Figgatt, M. C., Eger, W. H., Webster, D., Hayward, A. C., & Harris, M. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.09.20.24313898 · Cited by 6
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Background
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Solheim, K., Reime, M. H., & Eide, L. S. P. (2024) · Global Qualitative Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/23333936241240795 · Cited by 3
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BackgroundResult
Exploring the potential of Self-Management and Recovery Training (SMART Recovery) mutual-help groups for supporting people who use methamphetamine: A qualitative study examining participant experience of initiation and engagement
Beck, A. K., Larance, B., Manning, V., Deane, F. P., Baker, A., Hides, L. M., Shakeshaft, A. P., Argent, A., & Kelly, P. J. (2024) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2024.209570 · Cited by 3
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“Drug users often face social isolation and HIV testing [17], thus facilitating sexually transmitted infections (STIs) spread.”
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“These findings align with prior work demonstrating that poor treat-ment, including dehumanising language, discriminatory decision‐making, and undertreatment of withdrawal can delay or prevent presentation for care and potentially lead to early hospitalisation self‐termination [33, 34].”
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Background
Little Evidence for the Role of Disgust Sensitivity in Implicit Disgust to Images of White People Engaged in Injecting Drug Use (IDU)
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Background
The experiences of people who use injection drugs with accessing hepatitis c testing and diagnosis in western countries: A scoping review
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“The study findings are also consistent with prior studies which state that individuals often avoid seeking treatment to evade stigma (Meyerson et al., 2021), and some may resort to drug injections to avoid stigma in the health care settings (Biancarelli et al., 2019; Paquette et al., 2018).”
Fixing a Hole : a retrospective cohort study evaluating HAV, HBV, tetanus screening, and vaccination during hospitalization in persons who use substances
Streifel, A. C., Sarti, J. E. R., Sikka, M. K., Conte, M., Winders, B., & Varley, C. D. (2024) · Therapeutic Advances in Infectious Disease · doi:10.1177/20499361241245822 · Cited by 2
“34,35 While coordinating vaccination services through SSP appears to be an obvious strategy to increase vaccination rates in PWID, several barriers have been identified by these programs including a lack of sufficient physical space and staffing, especially for licensed vaccination providers as…”
Background
Drug use and COVID-19 testing, vaccination, and infection among underserved, minority communities in Miami, Florida
Tamargo, J. A., Martin, H. R., Diaz‐Martinez, J., Delgado‐Enciso, I., Johnson, A., Rodriguez, J. A. B., Trepka, M. J., Brown, D. R., Garba, N. A., Roldan, E. O., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0297327 · Cited by 2
“PWUD may also encounter barriers that limit vaccination access such as lack of transportation [16], limited healthcare access [6], concerns about stigma and discrimination [17], and complexity of booking systems [18, 19].”
Cluster analysis of medical students’ attitudes regarding people who use drugs: a first step to design a tailored education program
Richelle, L., Michèle, D.-W., Vanderhofstadt, Q., & Kornreich, C. (2024) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-05380-8 · Cited by 4
Decentralized HIV testing: comparing peer and mail-based distribution strategies to improve the reach of HIV self-testing among people who use drugs in Florida
Eger, W. H., Mutchler, A., Santamour, T., Meaders, S., Pines, H. A., Bazzi, A. R., Tookes, H. E., & Bartholomew, T. S. (2024) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-024-01031-9 · Cited by 2
“However, HIV testing coverage among PWUD remains low due to multiple factors, including high levels of substance use stigma and difficulty accessing healthcare services in traditional settings [11–13].”
Background
How Should Risks and Benefits of Short-Acting Opioids Be Evaluated in the Care of Inpatients With OUD?
Dong, K. A., & Duthie, K. (2024) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2024.512 · Cited by 2
“27 The language used to describe patients with OUD affects how health care professionals (and others) judge and value these patients, perceive the cause of the problem, and view whether the patient is deserving of treatment.”
Background
Overdose Experiences Among a Sample of Women in Jail with Opioid Use Disorder
Dickson, M. F., Annett, J., Walker, M., Leukefeld, C. G., Webster, J. M., Levi, M. M., Tillson, M. D., & Staton, M. (2024) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2024.2383982 · Cited by 2
“Biancarelli et al. (2019) found that among a sample of people who inject drugs, many delay accessing health care because of anticipated biases and mistreatment by medical personnel.”
A qualitative study of how structural vulnerability shaped COVID-19 testing behaviors in Portland, Maine
Kohut, M. R., Sclar, G. D., Nicoll, L. H., Fernandes, C., Volkers, A., Tucker, A., Jacobs, E. A., & Fairfield, K. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1433476 · Cited by 2
Characterizing syndemic HIV risk profiles and mHealth intervention acceptability among patients in the emergency department
Glynn, T. R., Khanna, S., Hasdianda, M. A., O’Cleirigh, C. M., & Chai, P. R. (2024) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2024.2407450 · Cited by 4
“Groups experiencing marginalization do not access regular health care (Baah et al., 2019; Biancarelli et al., 2019; Jackson et al., 2016; Kachen & Pharr, 2020; Richardson & Norris, 2010).”
Assessing challenges and solutions in substance abuse prevention, harm reduction, and treatment services in New York State
Kruger, D. J., Kirk, H. M., Leonard, K. E., Lynch, J. J., Nielsen, N., & Clemency, B. M. (2024) · SSM - Health Systems · doi:10.1016/j.ssmhs.2024.100039 · Cited by 2
Safer Supply: Program Discontinuation and Re-engagement
Haines, M., Hill, E. S., & O’Byrne, P. (2025) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/00220426251320885 · Cited by 2
“These concerns aligned with research which explored how PWUD commonly report experiences of stigma and mistreatment within healthcare institutions (Biancarelli et al., 2019; Motavalli et al., 2021).”
Opportunities to Innovate Health Policy and Practice to Improve Opioid Use Disorder Care for Older Adults Across the Care Continuum
Lowenstein, M., Perrone, J., Ritter, A. Z., & Aronowitz, S. V. (2025) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaf048 · Cited by 2
Integrating Methadone Services Into Primary Care in Ukraine: Two-Year Outcomes From a Randomized Trial
Machavariani, E., Esserman, D., Dumchev, K. V., Filippovych, M., Pykalo, I., Ivasiy, R., Madden, L. M., Bromberg, D. J., Haddad, M. S., Morozova, O., et al. (2025) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/annals-25-01764 · Cited by 2
Provider–patient experiences and HIV care utilization among people living with HIV who inject drugs in St. Petersburg, Russia
Raj, A., Gnatienko, N., Cheng, D. M., Blokhina, E. A., Dey, A., Wagman, J. A., Toussova, O., Truong, V., Rateau, L. J., Lunze, K., et al. (2023) · International Journal for Quality in Health Care · doi:10.1093/intqhc/mzad068 · Cited by 2
Opportunities for cancer prevention at syringe services programs: acceptability of HPV self-sampling and vaccination among people who inject drugs
Hinkes, S., Ciraldo, K. J., Kobetz, E. K., Bartholomew, T. S., Rinehart, S., Siringo, N. V., Barnett, R. L., Godbole, N. P., Jeanty, F., Frederick, M., et al. (2024) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-024-00982-3 · Cited by 2
“These findings demonstrate that this low-cost, low-barrier method of cancer screening is acceptable among PWID who avoid the traditional healthcare system due to intransigent stigma [18, 19].”
Background
Psychosocial Interventions for Improving Treatment Adherence in Tuberculosis Patients: A Scoping Review of Evidence-Based Approaches.
Bin Qamar, R. A., Pereira, H., & Alckmin-Carvalho, F. (2026) · Advances in respiratory medicine · doi:10.3390/arm94030032 · Cited by 1
“Building rapport and trust through low-threshold, non-stigmatizing services in community-based organizations, rather than in large institutional clinics, helps mitigate the anticipated discrimination that often deters these patients from seeking care [46].”
PrEP Indications and PrEP Knowledge, Access, and Interest Among Individuals With HCV
Hill, K. C., Kattakuzhy, S. M., Silk, R., Eyasu, R., Ogbumbadiugha-Weekes, O., Ebah, E., Cover, A. A., Davis, A., Gayle, B., Sternberg, D., et al. (2022) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofac476 · Cited by 1
“While HIV risk can be elicited by provider interview, not all patients feel comfortable discussing this personal and often stigmatized information with providers [27, 28].”
Background
Konflikte zwischen Personen mit Opioidabhängigkeit und Fachpersonen im Akutspital
Jaiteh, C., Lauener, S. K., Fanaj, F., Schaub, P., & Grossmann, F. F. (2023) · Pflege · doi:10.1024/1012-5302/a000958 · Cited by 1
A harm reduction journey: Connection, family support, and engagement in health care
Fallin‐Bennett, A., & Elswick, A. (2023) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2023.209179 · Cited by 1
Gender and Drug Use Discrimination Among People Who Inject Drugs: An Intersectional Approach Using the COSINUS Cohort
Anwar, I., Faye, A., Gonçalves, J. P., Madrid, L. B., Maradan, G., Lalanne, L., Jauffret‐Roustide, M., Auriacombe, M., & Roux, P. (2024) · International Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.2147/ijwh.s448147 · Cited by 1
Primary healthcare professionals’ attitudes toward patients with current or previous drug use
Garpenhag, L., & Dahlman, D. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care · doi:10.1080/02813432.2024.2349063 · Cited by 1
A community‐based participatory research approach to evaluating and improving hepatitis C risk, knowledge, and stigma associations among people who inject substances in Indiana
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Expectations and needs of people with illicit substance use disorders in general practice: a qualitative study in Belgium
Richelle, L., Kacenelenbogen, N., Kornreich, C., & Aron, M. (2024) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-024-02493-3 · Cited by 1
“For substance use as a coping, a social integration and an acculturation strategy for immigrant population which can be a source of shame and guilt especially if it was in opposition to their home country culture [25], and physical consequences of injection for PWID [26].”
Background
Depressive symptoms and determinants among people who inject drugs in Kaduna State, Nigeria
Butawa, N. N., Nmadu, A. G., Audu, S., Ajuonuma, F. O., Hamza, K. L., Joseph, S., Sule, A. G., Adze, J. A., Omole, V. N., Suleman, M., et al. (2024) · African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine · doi:10.4102/phcfm.v16i1.4639 · Cited by 1
“18,19,20 In a more recent study, the 2018 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime survey reported that opioids particularly tramadol, codeine and morphine were the most commonly injected drugs in Nigeria, with a prevalence of 4.7 % .”
Influential
Adverse childhood experiences, resilience, and syringe services program attendance among persons who inject drugs in Northeast Georgia, USA: A mediation analysis
Haider, M. R., Clinton, S., Brown, M. J., & Hansen, N. B. (2024) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports · doi:10.1016/j.dadr.2024.100309 · Cited by 1
“Resilience-based interventions have been effective in mitigating childhood trauma (Biancarelli et al., 2019; Chandler et al., 2015) and may improve harm reduction services uptake among PWID.”
Family Perspectives on Stigma Toward Women Who Use Drugs in Tanzania
Saleem, H. T., Noon, K., Nwakama, C., Atkins, K., Snyder, A., Josaphat, E., Mbwambo, J., & Likindikoki, S. L. (2025) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2024.2445008 · Cited by 1
“Fear of stigma from healthcare providers may also deter people from seeking health services (Austin et al., 2022; Biancarelli et al., 2019; Motavalli et al., 2021).”
Rapid initiation of antiretrovirals at a syringe services program for people with HIV who inject drugs
Plesons, M., Yang, W. E., Sansbury, G. M., Suarez, E., Collington, C., Ekowo, E., Ciraldo, K. J., Chueng, T. A., Serota, D. P., Forrest, D. W., et al. (2025) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2025.2461670 · Cited by 1
“I feel like people would look at me like I’m dirty or like I’m a thief:” a qualitative exploration of interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences that influence recovery among adults at risk of opioid-related overdose
Szlyk, H. S., Jones, S. J., Michener, J., Zhang, Z., Kaiser, N., Holtz, H., Frempong, M. R. K., Lateef, H. A., Hutson, W. D., & Cavazos‐Rehg, P. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1464075 · Cited by 1
Common Bacterial Infections in Persons Who Inject Drugs
Lorenzo, M. P., Adams, K. K., & Housman, S. T. (2025) · Medicines · doi:10.3390/medicines12020008 · Cited by 1
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Chambers, C., Ly, L. H., & Protopopova, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2025.1527196 · Cited by 1
Peripartum substance use and punitive laws: an update
White, W. R., Ojeda, E. M., Ronquest, J. R., Scott, V. P., House, S. J., Brown, C. C., Stowe, Z. N., & Coker, J. L. (2025) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-025-01590-1 · Cited by 1
“The bias against illicit substance use disorders by both the general public as well as medical professionals has been well established (Biancarelli et al. 2019), and is often apparent in the ways state laws are developed, proposed, and enforced.”
Local data for local programming: Results from an HIV biobehavioral survey among people who inject drugs in Livingstone, Lusaka, and Ndola, Zambia, 2021
Woytowich, D. J., McIntyre, A. F., Solomon, H., Hanunka, B., Chelu, L., Nkumbula, T., Tally, L., Handema, R., Khondowe, S., Kapungu, K., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323919 · Cited by 1
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Mallise, C. A., Tremain, D., Lindsay, M., Ryder, N., Fisher, K., Moran, B., Lecathelinais, C., Mesure, J., Grebely, J., Marshall, A. D., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104868 · Cited by 1
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“23 Working on a larger scale, through policy, advocacy, and education, could help rectify these issues.”
Concomitant treatment of alcohol associated liver disease and alcohol use disorder in the nontransplant setting: A scoping review
Fathma, S., McKee, S. A., Grimshaw, A. A., Boateng, S., Fiellin, D. A., Haque, L., Mehal, W. Z., & Banini, B. A. (2025) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.70112 · Cited by 1
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Dumchev, K. V., Stepanovich-Falke, A., Lunchenkov, N., Rohde, A., Danshyna, A., Bekbolotov, A. A., Solpueva, A., Kenzhekarieva, A., Karagulova, A., Narmatova, E., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0330210 · Cited by 1
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“Additionally, due to anticipation of stigma, some PWID develop strategies to avoid health-care interactions, such as delaying presentation, down-playing pain, not disclosing drug use, and seeking other care [4, 5].”
Attitudes of HIV healthcare Provider Attitudes Towards PWH who use Drugs and acceptance of harm reduction strategies: a cross-sectional study
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Drug-related stigma among people who inject drugs – development and validation of the drug use stigma scale (DUSS)
Pollini, R. A., Paquette, C. E., Irvin, B., Syvertsen, J. L., & Lilly, C. L. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0338691 · Cited by 1
“The latter was included to evaluate the extent to which the full-scale score corresponds to a primary behavior of interest (healthcare avoidance), which previous literature suggests is strongly associated with drug-related stigma [4,6,7,18–21].”
“Let’s Talk Stigma”: A Pharmacy-Based Program for Opioid Use Disorder Anti-Stigma Education in Pennsylvania
Carroll, J. C., Herbert, S. M. C., Coley, K. C., Nguyen, T. Q., McGivney, M. S., Hake, K. L., Elliott, J. P., & Bunk, E. (2025) · Pharmacy · doi:10.3390/pharmacy14010003 · Cited by 1
“If stigma can be reduced in healthcare settings, individuals who use drugs may be more likely to engage in services for treatment or safer use [10].”
Development of an Opioid Stigma Scale for People Living With Chronic Pain
Carnago, L. R., Perry, M., & Knettel, B. A. (2025) · Pain Management Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2025.12.009 · Cited by 1
Impact of Interventions Addressing Stigma and Opioid Use Disorder in Medical Schools: A Scoping Review
Hartman, C. F., Boose, Q., & Beauchamp, G. A. (2025) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2025.2609290 · Cited by 1
“This stigmatization has led to delay of care for routine and urgent medical visits, further increasing morbidity and mortality for these injection drug use-related harms (Biancarelli et al., 2019; Summers et al., 2018).”
Zeroing in on xylazine - a mixed methods study to explore correlates of reported xylazine use and educational gaps among people who use drugs
Hill, K., Minahan-Rowley, R., Biegacki, E. T., Heimer, R., & Sue, K. L. (2026) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-026-01437-7 · Cited by 1
“Certainly, there is well-documented evidence that PWUD can face difficulties seeking health-care—especially care related to their drug use—as physical markings (e.g., abscesses, sores, etc.) can lead to feelings of shame and stigma [19, 20, 21, 22].”

Authors: Biancarelli, D. L., Biello, K. B., Childs, E., Drainoni, M., Salhaney, P., Edeza, A., Mimiaga, M. J., Saitz, R., & Bazzi, A. R.
Affiliations: Boston University (US)
Brown University (US)
Corresponding author: Bazzi, Angela R.
ORCID: Biancarelli, Dea L.
Biello, Katie B.
Childs, Ellen
Drainoni, M.
Edeza, Alberto
Mimiaga, Matthew J
Saitz, Richard
Bazzi, Angela R.
Venue: Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2019-05
Volume: 198
Pages: 80-86
ISSN: 0376-8716 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.037
PMC: PMC6521691
OpenAlex: W2921016611
Cited by: 524
References: 79
Citations by year: 2026: 51 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 109 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 8
FWCI: 36.54
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (am, 319 d)
Locations: Drug and Alcohol Dependence (acceptedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Providence/Boston Center for AIDS Research (P30AI042853)
NIH/NIDA (K01DA043412)
BU Peter Paul Career Development Professorship
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › HIV, Drug Use, Sexual Risk
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Opioid Use Disorder Treatment
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Keywords: people who inject drugs, stigma, health care utilization, dehumanization, community organizations, syringe services programs, HIV risk behavior, provider training, integrated care
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Health Personnel, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, New England, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, HIV Infections, Substance Abuse, Intravenous, Drug Users, Young Adult, Social Stigma

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Strategies used by people who inject drugs to avoid stigma in healthcare settings

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