Polystyrene microplastics enhance microcystin-LR-induced cardiovascular toxicity and oxidative stress in zebrafish embryos
Abstract
The health risks associated with combined exposure to microplastics (MPs) and cyanobacteria toxins have gained increasing attention due to the large-scale prevalence of cyanobacterial blooms and accumulation of MPs in aquatic environments. Therefore, we explored the cardiovascular toxic effects of microcystin-LR (MC-LR, 1, 10, 100 μg/L) in the presence of 5 μm polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs, 100 μg/L) and 80 nm polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 100μg/L) in zebrafish models. Embryos were exposed to certain PS-MPs and PS-NPs conditions in water between 3 h post-fertilization (hpf) and 168 hpf. Compared to MC-LR alone, a significant decrease in heart rate was observed as well as notable pericardial edema in the MC-LR+PS-MPs/NPs groups. At the same time, sinus venosus and bulbus arteriosus (SV-BA) distances were significantly increased. Furthermore, the addition of PS-MPs/NPs caused thrombosis in the caudal vein and more severe vascular damage in zebrafish larvae compared to MC-LR alone. Our findings revealed that combined exposure to PS-NPs and MC-LR could significantly decreased the expression of genes associated with cardiovascular development (myh6, nkx2.5, tnnt2a, and vegfaa), ATPase (atp1a3b, atp1b2b, atp2a1l, atp2b1a, and atp2b4), and the calcium channel (cacna1ab and ryr2a) compared to exposure to MC-LR alone. In addition, co-exposure with PS-MPs/NPs exacerbated the MC-LR-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, as well as the ROS-stimulated apoptosis and heightened inflammation. We also discovered that astaxanthin (ASTA) treatment partially attenuated these cardiovascular toxic effects. Our findings confirm that exposure to MC-LR and PS-MPs/NPs affects cardiovascular development through calcium signaling interference and ROS-induced cardiovascular cell apoptosis. This study highlights the potential environmental risks of the co-existence of MC-LR and PS-MPs/NPs for fetal health, particularly cardiovascular development.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
von Moos, N., Burkhardt-Holm, P., & Köhler, A. (2012) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es302332w · Cited by 1,697 · see citing works
Kim, J.-A., Montagnani, M., Koh, K. K., & Quon, M. J. (2006) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.105.563213 · Cited by 1,652 · see citing works
Bouwmeester, H., Hollman, P. C. H., & Peters, R. (2015) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01090 · Cited by 1,275 · see citing works
Toxicity of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Mammalian Systems
Yong, C., Valiyaveettil, S., & Tang, B. L. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17051509 · Cited by 924 · see citing works
Calcium and Excitation-Contraction Coupling in the Heart
Eisner, D. A., Caldwell, J. L., Kistamás, K., & Trafford, A. W. (2017) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.117.310230 · Cited by 871 · see citing works
Barboza, L. G. A., Vieira, L. R., Branco, V., Figueiredo, N., Carvalho, F., Carvalho, C., & Guilhermino, L. (2018) · Aquatic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.12.008 · Cited by 766 · see citing works
The Role of Inflammation in Cardiovascular Disease
Henein, M. Y., Vancheri, S., Longo, G., & Vancheri, F. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232112906 · Cited by 766 · see citing works
Detection and Analysis of Microplastics in Human Sputum
Huang, S., Huang, X., Bi, R., Guo, Q., Yu, X., Zeng, Q., Huang, Z., Liu, T., Wu, H., Chen, Y., et al. (2022) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c03859 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
Self-citationDetection of Various Microplastics in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery
Yang, Y., Xie, E., Du, Z., Peng, Z., Han, Z., Li, L., Zhao, R., Qin, Y., Xue, M., Li, F., et al. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.2c07179 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?
Waring, R. H., Harris, R. M., & Mitchell, S. C. (2018) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
BMP10 is essential for maintaining cardiac growth during murine cardiogenesis
Chen, H., Shi, S., Acosta, L., Li, W., Lu, J. T., Bao, S., Chen, Z., Yang, Z., Schneider, M. D., Chien, K. R., et al. (2004) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.01094 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Little Fish, Big Data: Zebrafish as a Model for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease
Gut, P., Reischauer, S., Stainier, D. Y. R., & Arnaout, R. (2017) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00038.2016 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Yin, K., Wang, D., Wang, Y., Lu, H., Zhao, H., & Xing, M. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156727 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Reactive oxygen species: A double-edged sword in oncogenesis
Pan, J., Hong, M., & Ren, J. (2009) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.15.1702 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Astaxanthin: A Potential Mitochondrial-Targeted Antioxidant Treatment in Diseases and with Aging
Sztretye, M. T., Dienes, B., Gönczi, M., Czirják, T., Csernoch, L. J., László, A., Szentesi, P., & Keller-Pintér, A. (2019) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2019/3849692 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Deng, Y., Yan, Z., Shen, R., Huang, Y., Ren, H., & Zhang, Y. (2020) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124644 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Free Radical Scavenging and Cellular Antioxidant Properties of Astaxanthin
Dose, J., Matsugo, S., Yokokawa, H., Koshida, Y., Okazaki, S., Seidel, U., Eggersdorfer, M. L., Rimbach, G. H., & Esatbeyoglu, T. (2016) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms17010103 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Faure, F., Saini, C., Potter, G., Galgani, F., Alencastro, L. F. D., & Hagmann, P. (2015) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-015-4453-3 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Miao, L., Hou, J., You, G., Liu, Z., Liu, S., Li, T., Mo, Y., Guo, S., & Qu, H. (2019) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113300 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Possible genotoxic mechanisms of nanoparticles: Criteria for improved test strategies
Donaldson, K., Poland, C. A., & Schins, R. P. F. (2010) · Nanotoxicology · doi:10.3109/17435390.2010.482751 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Beisaw, A., Kuenne, C. T., Günther, S., Dallmann, J., Wu, C. C., Bentsen, M. S., Looso, M., & Stainier, D. Y. R. (2020) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.119.316167 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
The latest advances in the reproductive toxicity of microcystin-LR
Zhang, S., Du, X., Liu, H., Losiewic, M. D., Chen, X., Ya, M., Wang, R., Tian, Z., Shi, L., Guo, H., et al. (2020) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110254 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Granados-Riveron, J. T., Ghosh, T. K., Pope, M., Bu'Lock, F. A., Thornborough, C., Eason, J., Kirk, E. P., Fatkin, D., Feneley, M. P., Harvey, R. P., et al. (2010) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddq315 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Santos, D., Félix, L. M., Luzio, A., Parra, S., Cabecinha, E., Bellas, J., & Monteiro, S. M. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127748 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Association between the α 1a calcium channel gene CACNA1A and idiopathic generalized epilepsy
Chioza, B. A., Wilkie, H., Nashef, L. A. M., et al. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.56.9.1245 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Banack, S. A., Caller, T. A., Henegan, P. L., Haney, J. F., Murby, A., Metcalf, J. S., Powell, J. T., Cox, P. A., & Stommel, E. W. (2015) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins7020322 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Decreased ATP production and myocardial contractile reserve in metabolic heart disease
Luptak, I., Sverdlov, A. L., Panagia, M., Qin, F., Pimentel, D. R., Croteau, D., Siwik, D. A., Ingwall, J. S., Bachschmid, M. M., Balschi, J. A., et al. (2018) · Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2018.01.017 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
He, J., Mo, D., Chen, J., & Luo, L. (2020) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/s41596-020-0376-7 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Pestana, C. J., Moura, D. S., Neto, J. C., Edwards, C., Dreisbach, D., Spengler, B., & Lawton, L. A. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c05796 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Burgos-Aceves, M. A., Cohen, A., Paolella, G., Lepretti, M., Smith, Y., Faggio, C., & Lionetti, L. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.109 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Nanoplastics and Microplastics May Be Damaging Our Livers
Yin, J., Ju, Y., Qian, H.-H., Wang, J., Miao, X., Zhu, Y., Zhou, L.-T., & Ye, L. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10100586 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Developmental neurotoxicity of low concentrations of bisphenol A and S exposure in zebrafish
Gyimah, E., Xu, H., Dong, X. L., Qiu, X., Zhang, Z., Bu, Y., & Akoto, O. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128045 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Liu, H.-C., Chu, T., Chen, L., et al. (2017) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.072 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Yu, Y., Ma, R., Qu, H., Zuo, Y., Yu, Z., Hu, G., Li, Z., Chen, H., Lin, B., Wang, B., et al. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126067 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Qiu, T., Xie, P., Liu, Y., Li, G., Xiong, Q., Hao, L., & Li, H. (2008) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2008.12.012 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Turakhia, M. P., Schiller, N. B., & Whooley, M. A. (2008) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.06.036 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Development toxicity and cardiotoxicity in zebrafish from exposure to iprodione
Wei, Y., Meng, Y., Huang, Y., Liu, Z., Zhong, K., Ma, J., Zhang, W., Li, Y., & Lu, H. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127860 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Bhagat, J., Zang, L., Nakayama, H., Nishimura, N., & Shimada, Y. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149463 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Qi, M., Dang, Y., Xu, Q., Yu, L., Liu, C., Yuan, Y., & Wang, J. (2016) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.05.038 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationSaraf, S. R., Frenkel, A., Harke, M. J., et al. (2017) · Aquatic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.10.026 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Microcystin-LR exposure induced nephrotoxicity by triggering apoptosis in female zebrafish
Wang, Z., Li, G., Wu, Q., et al. (2018) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.103 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Wan, X., Steinman, A. D., Gu, Y., et al. (2020) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-020-10384-0 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Microcystin-LR Induced Immunotoxicity in Mammals
Lone, Y., Bhide, M., & Koiri, R. K. (2016) · Journal of Toxicology · doi:10.1155/2016/8048125 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Zhao, Y., Xie, P., Tang, R., et al. (2008) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Toxicology & Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2008.05.008 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Sikalidis, A. K., Mazor, K. M., Lee, J.-I., Roman, H. B., Hirschberger, L. L., & Stipanuk, M. H. (2014) · Amino Acids · doi:10.1007/s00726-014-1687-1 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Wang, Q., Liu, Y., Guo, J., Song, L., Wang, Y., Yin, T., Gregersen, H. N., Hu, T., & Wang, G. (2018) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.019 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Microcystin-LR in Primary Liver Cancers: An Overview
Gu, S., Jiang, M., & Zhang, B. (2022) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins14100715 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Yang, Y., Li, Q., Shen, Y., Wei, R., Lan, Y., Wang, Q., Lei, N., & Xie, Y. (2023) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132193 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
A review and assessment of cyanobacterial toxins as cardiovascular health hazards
Svirčev, Z. B., Chen, L., Sántha, K., Drobac, D., Šušak, S., Vulin, A., Malešević, T. P., Codd, G. A., & Meriluoto, J. A. O. (2022) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-022-03354-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
MacKeigan, P. W., Zastepa, A., Taranu, Z. E., et al. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163811 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Niu, Z., Du, L., Li, J., et al. (2017) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.037 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Zebrafish heart failure models: opportunities and challenges
Shi, X., Chen, R., Zhang, Y., Yun, J., Brand‐Arzamendi, K., Liu, X., & Wen, X. (2018) · Amino Acids · doi:10.1007/s00726-018-2578-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Exposure to low-level metalaxyl impacts the cardiac development and function of zebrafish embryos
Wu, Y., Zhang, Y., Chen, M., Yang, Q., Zhuang, S., Lv, L., Zuo, Z., & Wang, C. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jes.2019.03.019 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Bifenazate exposure induces cardiotoxicity in zebrafish embryos
Ma, J., Huang, Y., Peng, Y., et al. (2021) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116539 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Emission of cyanobacterial volatile organic compounds and their roles in blooms
Zuo, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1097712 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The role of a common TNNT2 polymorphism in cardiac hypertrophy
Komamura, K., Iwai, N., Kokame, K., et al. (2004) · Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10038-003-0121-4 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Luan, N., Zuo, J., Niu, Q., Yan, W., Hung, T., Liu, H., Wu, Q., Wang, G., Deng, P., Ma, X., et al. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168058 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Hassel, W. H. R. V., Andjelković, M., Durieu, B., Marroquin, V. A., Masquelier, J., Huybrechts, B., & Wilmotte, A. (2022) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins14010061 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Methyl Parathion Exposure Induces Development Toxicity and Cardiotoxicity in Zebrafish Embryos
Chen, T., Chen, H., Wang, A., et al. (2023) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics11010084 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Jones, S., Solomon, A., Sanz‐Rosa, D., et al. (2010) · Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis · doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.04076.x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Simultaneous imaging of calcium and contraction in the beating heart of zebrafish larvae
Salgado‐Almario, J., Vicente, M., Molina, Y., Martínez-Sielva, A., Vincent, P., Domingo, B., & Llopis, J. L. (2022) · Theranostics · doi:10.7150/thno.64734 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Wan, X., Zhao, Y., Xu, X., Li, Z., Xie, L., Wang, G., & Yang, F. (2023) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121146 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Thomson, K. S., Odom, G. L., Murry, C. E., Mahairas, G. G., Moussavi‐Harami, F., Teichman, S. L., Chen, X., Hauschka, S. D., Chamberlain, J. S., & Regnier, M. (2016) · JACC Basic to Translational Science · doi:10.1016/j.jacbts.2016.07.006 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kurusamy, S., López-Maderuelo, D., Little, R., et al. (2017) · Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2017.07.001 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Preliminary safety assessment of oridonin in zebrafish
Tian, L., Sheng, D., Li, Q., et al. (2019) · Pharmaceutical Biology · doi:10.1080/13880209.2019.1662457 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Ladd, T. M., Bullington, J. A., Matson, P. G., Kudela, R. M., & Iglesias-Rodríguez, M. I. (2018) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps12710 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Si, W., Zhao, M., Che, H., Wu, Z., Xiao, Y., Xie, X., Duan, J., Shen, T., Xu, D., & Zhao, S. (2023) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121117 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationNguyen, T. A. D., Nguyen, L., Enright, A., et al. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14545-7 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Fan, G., Shen, T., Jia, K., Xiao, X., Wu, Z., Gong, F., & Lu, H. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10060299 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Liu, L., Fei, F., Zhang, R., Wu, F., Yang, Q., Wang, F., Sun, S., Zhao, H., Li, Q., Wang, L., et al. (2019) · Biology Open · doi:10.1242/bio.046474 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Cardiac Toxicity Induced by Long-Term Environmental Levels of MC-LR Exposure in Mice
Yan, C., Liu, Y., Yang, Y., et al. (2023) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins15070427 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Geng, 2021, Analysis of the characteristics of micro- and nanoplastics exposure to Chinese population via ingestion and inhalation, Chinese Journal of Disease Control, 25, 1245
- MacKeigan, 2023, Microcystin concentrations and congener composition in relation to environmental variables across 440 north-temperate and boreal lakes, Sci. Total Environ., 884, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163811 · DOI
- Mo, 2016, Expression of P-selectin, VCAM-1, and PSGL-1 in traumatic deep venous thrombosis, Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol., 9, 3403
- Qi, 2016, Microcystin-LR induced developmental toxicity and apoptosis in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae by activation of ER stress response, Chemosphere, 157, 166, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.05.038 · DOI
- Si, 2023, Microcystin-LR induced transgenerational effects of thyroid disruption in zebrafish offspring by endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated thyroglobulin accumulation and apoptosis, Environ. Pollut., 322, 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121117 · DOI
- Van Hassel, 2022, A summer of cyanobacterial blooms in belgian waterbodies: microcystin quantification and molecular characterizations, Toxins, 14, 61, 10.3390/toxins14010061 · DOI
- Wang, 2019, Microcystin-LR induces angiodysplasia and vascular dysfunction through promoting cell apoptosis by the mitochondrial signaling pathway, Chemosphere, 218, 438, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.019 · DOI
- Wang, 2019, Microcystin-LR induces angiodysplasia and vascular dysfunction through promoting cell apoptosis by the mitochondrial signaling pathway, Chemosphere, 218, 438, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.019 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
PVC nanoplastics impair cardiac function via lysosomal and mitochondrial dysfunction
Liu, G., Bao, Q., Zhang, C., Zhong, Y., Deng, M., Huang, Y., Ye, Z., & Jing, J. (2025) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2025.151736 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
- Authors
- Xiao, Y., Hu, L., Duan, J., Che, H., Wang, W., Yuan, Y., Xu, J., Chen, D., & Zhao, S.
- Affiliations
- Anhui Medical University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Zhao, Sujuan
- Venue
- Environmental Pollution
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-07
- Volume
- 352
- Pages
- 124022
- ISSN
- 0269-7491 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4395661061
- Semantic Scholar
- 4b9fa9a9326818a5e7bf90fd250b806016773888
- Cited by
- 49
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 4
- FWCI
- 4.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Pollution (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Zebrafish Biomedical Research Applications
- Keywords
- polystyrene microplastics, polystyrene nanoplastics, microcystin-LR, cyanotoxins, cardiotoxicity, zebrafish embryos, oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species, apoptosis, calcium signaling, heart development, vascular injury, thrombosis, pericardial edema, astaxanthin, combined exposure, cyanobacterial blooms
- MeSH terms
- Microplastics, Animals, Embryo, Nonmammalian, Marine Toxins, Polystyrenes, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Zebrafish, Oxidative Stress, Microcystins
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
