Evidential reasoning for preprocessing uncertain categorical data for trustworthy decisions: An application on healthcare and finance
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An organisation possessing such an AI would have the power to stump their entire competition, becoming a monopoly by controlling their and other's assets.
“An organisation possessing this would hence have the power to stump their entire competition, becoming a monopoly by just controlling their and other's assets [25].”
From A Review of Trustworthy and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
This reliance is a case of giving more power into AI's hands.
“This reliance is also a case of giving more power into AI's hands [25].”
From A Review of Trustworthy and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
Having a thorough understanding of and familiarity with a system is one of the most crucial elements in building trust.
“having a thorough understanding of and familiarity with the system is one of the most crucial elements in building trust [24], [25].”
From A Review of Trustworthy and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
Several businesses also leverage ML in trading cost and implementation, credit risk analysis, and traditional insurance costing and screening.
“Several businesses also leverage ML in trading cost and implementation, credit risk analysis, and traditional insurance costing and screening [25], [77].”
From A Review of Trustworthy and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
ML has been most widely employed across client-facing operations in addition to anti-money laundering and anomaly detection.
“ML has been most widely employed across client-facing operations (including advertising and client support) in addition to anti-money laundering and anomaly detection.”
From A Review of Trustworthy and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
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“An organisation possessing this would hence have the power to stump their entire competition, becoming a monopoly by just controlling their and other’s assets [25].”
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Hybrid Optimization based Feature Selection with DenseNet Model for Heart Disease Prediction
Krishnan, V. G., Saradhi, M. V. V., Kumar, S. S., Dhanalakshmi, G., Pushpa, P., & Vijayaraja, V. (2023) · International Journal of Electrical and Electronics Research · doi:10.37391/ijeer.110203 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“When dealing with missing data, data imputation techniques can be helpful; nevertheless, their application in medicine is restricted, and their specific efficacy for illness identification is unclear [26].”
BackgroundSachan, S., Fickett, D. S., Kyaw, N. E. E., Purkayastha, R. S., & Renimol, S. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC) · doi:10.1109/icbc56567.2023.10174925 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“PM methods such as concept mapping [3], causal loop diagrams [4], Bayesian networks [5], and fuzzy cognitive mapping [6] enable the transfer of unstructured knowledge into plausible beliefs stored in a structured knowledge base (KB) [7][8].”
MethodSelf-citationOrlu, G. U., Abdullah, R., Zaremohzzabieh, Z., Jusoh, Y. Y., Asadi, S., Qasem, Y. A. M., Nor, R. N. H., & Nasir, W. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su152115476 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“No.”
Guan, X., Yu, H., & Yi, X. (2025) · Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2025.111737 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pan, L., & Deng, Y. (2023) · Applied Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s10489-023-04573-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Evidential Reasoning Approach for Predicting Popularity of Instagram Posts
Rivadeneira, L., & Loor, I. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3510637 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Dezem, V., Sachan, S., Macedo, M. Á. D. S., & Longaray, A. A. (2024) · Future Business Journal · doi:10.1186/s43093-024-00397-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationAutomated Secure Computing for Fraud Detection in Financial Transactions
Singh, K., Kolar, P., Abraham, R., Ram, V. S., Nanduri, S., & Kumar, D. (2023) · doi:10.1002/9781394213948.ch9 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Asynchronous optimization approach for evidential reasoning rule-based classifier
Zhao, R., Sun, J., Tu, L., & Jiang, J. (2023) · Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2023.107435 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Sachan, S., & Fairclough, G. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64359-0_3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationFintech Lending Decisions: An Interpretable Knowledge-Base System for Retail and Commercial Loans
Sachan, S. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08974-9_10 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationA Feature Incremental Learning Method Based on Evidential Reasoning Rule
Tu, L., Zhao, R., Sun, J., & Jiang, J. (2022) · International Conference on Big Data and Information Analytics (BigDIA) · doi:10.1109/bigdia56350.2022.9874047 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“At present, the researches on ER Rule classifier always follow the setting of traditional batch learning, while cannot adapt to the requirements of data stream mining[14].”
BackgroundSystematic Literature Review of Data Distribution in Preprocessing Stage with Focus on Outliers
Muslikh, A. R., Andono, P. N., Marjuni, A., & Santoso, H. A. (2023) · International Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and Communication (iSemantic) · doi:10.1109/isemantic59612.2023.10295291 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“It helps in outlier detection, guides the selection of preprocessing techniques, informs feature engineering decisions, ensures model assumptions are met, and aids in data normalization [3].”
BackgroundA Review on Explainable Artificial Intelligence for Healthcare
Chauhan, R. (2025) · doi:10.1002/9781394249312.ch1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhang, C., Lu, W., Xu, Z., & Xue, W. (2023) · Applied Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s10489-023-04746-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The ER method has significant advantages when aggregating highly independent and conflicting evidences from various sources and reliability [32].”
MethodDiabetes Classification Problem with CatBoost Method and Optuna Gradient Boosting Optimization
Kurniawan, S. D., Purwono, P., Ma’arif, A., & Suwarno, I. (2023) · International Conference on Information and Communications Technology (ICOIACT) · doi:10.1109/icoiact59844.2023.10455940 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Datasets are generally raw in nature because a lot of data is ambiguous and incomplete, which is caused by missing attributes from both the input and output sides, which negatively impact machine learning models [31] [32].”
BackgroundShen, J., Si, Z., Li, H., Ma, N., & He, W. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-86851-w · Cited by 3 · see citing works
AI Technologies in Reducing Hospital Readmission for Chronic Diseases: A Recommended Framework
Farid, F., Bello, A., Ahamed, F., Hossain, F., Sabrina, F., & Sohail, S. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Future Machine Learning and Data Science (FMLDS) · doi:10.1109/fmlds63805.2024.00022 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: A Proposed Framework
Lynch, N. S. J., Loughran, R., McHugh, M., & McCaffery, F. (2025) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-04288-0_5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wei-wei, C., He, W., Zhu, H., Guo-hui, Z., Mu, Q., & Han, P. (2022) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2023.035743 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Revisiting the Key Components of Creativity Through Generative AI
Güzelci, O. Z., & Karadağ, İ. (2024) · Advances in media, entertainment and the arts (AMEA) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1950-5.ch001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mahapatro, S., Sahu, P. K., & Subudhi, A. K. (2026) · Cogent Engineering · doi:10.1080/23311916.2026.2641300 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chen, S.-Q., Shi, H.-L., Wang, Y., & Chen, L.-T. (2025) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2025.113235 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gore, R., Banerjea, S., & Tyagi, N. (2022) · Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing · doi:10.1007/s12652-022-04401-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Sachan et al. (2021) used a D–”
IGHOA Based Modified Convolutional Neural Network for Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease
R, D. M., Jaiswal, R., Vishwanatha, C. R., Thatikonda, R., & Avula, S. R. (2023) · International Conference on Evolutionary Algorithms and Soft Computing Techniques (EASCT) · doi:10.1109/easct59475.2023.10393147 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tang, Y., Wu, L., Huang, Y., & Zhou, D. (2024) · Soft Computing · doi:10.1007/s00500-024-09740-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“S) evidence theory (Dempster 1967; Shafer 1976), D numbers (Chakraborty et al. 2020), belief functions (Denoeux 2019; Zhou et al. 2022), evidential reasoning (Yang and Dong-Ling 2013; Sachan et al. 2021), etc.”
Palomar, E., Cruz, C., Bravo, I., & Hernandez-Grau, M. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm) · doi:10.1109/smartgridcomm60555.2024.10738044 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…size 6 . b) Data preprocessing: The presence of categorical (qualitative) attributes increases the information uncertainty, so we apply automatic techniques to the preprocessing (i.e., transform categorical attributes into numbers) of the input data such as one-hot, target and label encoding [25].”
MethodComposite Activation Belief Rule Base Model for Complex Systems Based on Multi‐Dimensional Reduction
Shen, J., Si, Z., He, W., Ma, N., & Li, H. (2025) · Advanced Theory and Simulations · doi:10.1002/adts.202500111 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Maithani, A., & Verma, G. (2025) · Progress in Engineering Science · doi:10.1016/j.pes.2025.100139 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trustworthy DataOps for the Medallion Lakehouse
Fannouch, A., Gharib, J., & Gahi, Y. (2026) · International Conference on Innovative Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET) · doi:10.1109/iraset68627.2026.11538725 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, automation alone is not enough, as trust in data is becoming the central pillar of operational excellence, especially when it comes to critical domain such as healthcare [3], finance [4] and nuclear power [5] etc...”
Huang, W., Xu, X., Zhang, Z., He, H., Nam, H., & Steyskal, F. (2026) · Displays · doi:10.1016/j.displa.2026.103584 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mallick, S., & Panda, M. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23233-6_26 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A new classification method using the generalized basic probability assignment
Tang, Y., Wu, L., Huang, Y., & Zhou, D. (2023) · European Control Conference (ECC) · doi:10.23919/ecc57647.2023.10178244 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“To solve this problem, many researchers proposed a lot of solutions to model and fuse the uncertain information, such as methods basing on fuzzy set theory [5], Z-numbers [6], probability theory [7], Dempster-Shafer (D-S) evidence theory [8], belief functions [9, 10], evidential reasoning [11], etc.”
MethodBlockchain for Ethical and Transparent Generative AI Utilization by Banking and Finance Lawyers
Sachan, S., Dezem, V., & Fickett, D. S. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-63800-8_16 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“ER algorithm can combine multiple pieces of independent and highly conflicting evidence by considering the weights and reliability of each piece of evidence to add a more comprehensive explanation for decisions [30][31].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPurwono, P., Wirasto, A., Setiawan, R. A., Triwibowo, D. N., Zuhrufillah, I., Sumantri, R. B. B., & Supriyatin, S. (2023) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0120255 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Machine Learning-Based Model for Injury-Free Sports Training
Sharma, D., & Sharma, V. (2023) · International Journal of convergence in healthcare · doi:10.55487/ijcih.v3i1.97 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kapila, R., & Saleti, S. (2023) · Advances in healthcare information systems and administration book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-8913-0.ch003
Reliability Analysis of Wind Turbine Generator Considering Environmental and Meteorological Data
Jin, S., & Mu, X. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Power, Intelligent Computing and Systems (ICPICS) · doi:10.1109/icpics58376.2023.10235717
“ER rules consider the ability of evidence to correctly express information, and the modeling process reasoning is clear, and the expression of parameters and evidence is transparent and interpretable, which is widely used in evaluation and decision making and many other fields [5, 6].”
BackgroundJin, S., & Mu, X. (2023) · International Conference on Information Science, Parallel and Distributed Systems (ISPDS) · doi:10.1109/ispds58840.2023.10235450
“It is widely used in many fields such as evaluation and decision making [8].”
Palomar, E., Cruz, C., Hernandez, M., & Bravo, I. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3426586/v1
Federated Classifier Fusion - An Evidential Reasoning Approach
Seo, J. (2024) · International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC) · doi:10.1109/icac61394.2024.10718761
“The evidential reasoning (ER) rule is an evidence combination method that can combine multiple pieces of independent and highly conflicting evidence with different weight and reliability [23].”
MethodWang, W. (2025) · doi:10.26481/dis.20250522ww
Data preparation method for machine learning-based breast cancer risk prediction: A Cuban case study
Valencia-Moreno, J. M., Gutiérrez-López, E., Gonzalez-Fraga, J. A., Rodríguez, R. A. M., Victoria, O. D. M., & Serrano, A. A. S. (2025) · MethodsX · doi:10.1016/j.mex.2025.103688
“…facilitating model training without the need for scripting filters to discard poorly formatted data; enabling correct computation of descriptive metrics (mean, standard deviation); and allowing direct integration into digital health systems based on standards such as HL7 FHIR or OMOP CDM [11 – 15].”
- Authors
- Sachan, S., Almaghrabi, F., Yang, J.-B., & Xu, D.-L.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Sachan, Swati
- Venue
- Expert Systems with Applications
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-12
- Volume
- 185
- Pages
- 115597
- ISSN
- 0957-4174 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3186595859
- Cited by
- 66
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 4.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Expert Systems with Applications (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Manchester (AA15032)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Multi-Criteria Decision Making
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Health Information Management › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
- Keywords
- evidential reasoning, categorical data, missing data imputation, uncertainty management, trustworthy AI, explainability, expert preferences, reliability weighting, health care, finance, data preprocessing
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