Using stable Mg isotope signatures to assess the fate of magnesium during the in-situ mineralisation of CO2 and H2S at the CarbFix site in SW-Iceland
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The in-situ carbonation of basaltic rocks could provide a long-term carbon storage solution. To investigate the viability of this carbon storage solution, 175 tonnes of pure CO2 and 73 tonnes of a 75% CO2-24% H2S-1% H2-gas mixture were sequentially injected into basaltic rocks as a dissolved aqueous fluid at the CarbFix site at Hellisheidi, SW-Iceland. This paper reports the Mg stable isotope compositions of sub-surface fluids sampled prior to, during, and after the CO2 injections. These Mg isotopic compositions are used to trace the fate of this element during the subsurface carbonation of basalts. The measured Mg isotopic compositions of the monitoring well fluids are isotopically lighter than the dissolving basalts and continue to become increasingly lighter for at least two years after the gas-charged water injection was stopped. The results indicate that the formation of isotopically heavy Mg-clays rather than Mg-carbonates are the predominant Mg secondary phases precipitating from the sampled fluids. Isotope mass balance calculations suggest that more than 70% of the Mg liberated from the basalt by the injected gas charged water was precipitated as Mg-clays, with this percentage increasing with time after the injection, consistent with the continued precipitation of Mg clays over the whole of the study period. The formation of Mg clays in response to the injection of CO2 into basalts, as indicated in this study, could be detrimental to carbon storage efforts because the formation of these minerals consume divalent Mg that could otherwise be used for the formation of carbonate minerals and because such clays could decrease host rock permeability.
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The findings support the conclusion that the majority of injected CO2 migrated through and mineralised within the porous media of the storage reservoir.
“The significance of these findings to the outcomes of the CarbFix experiment are validatory, in that they support the conclusion that the majority of injected CO 2 migrated through and mineralised within the porous media of the storage reservoir (Matter et al., 2016;Oelkers et al., 2019;Pogge von Strandmann et al., 2019).”
From Reconstructing the temperature and origin of CO2 mineralisation in CarbFix calcite using clumped, carbon and oxygen isotopes (2024) · cites this paper as Oelkers et al., 2019
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Olsson, J., Stipp, S. L. S., Makovicky, E., & Gislason, S. R. (2014) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.06.025 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationSigfússon, B., Arnarson, M. Þ., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Karlsdóttir, M. R., Aradóttir, E. S., & Gunnarsson, I. (2018) · Energy Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2018.07.018 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationOelkers, É. H., Benning, L. G., Lutz, S., Mavromatis, V., Pearce, C. R., & Plümper, O. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.06.004 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The geochemistry and sequestration of H2S into the geothermal system at Hellisheidi, Iceland
Stefánsson, A., Arnórsson, S., Gunnarsson, I., Kaasalainen, H., & Gunnlaugsson, E. (2011) · Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research · doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.12.014 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationSimulating geologic co-sequestration of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide in a basalt formation
Bacon, D. H., Ramanathan, R., Schaef, H. T., & McGrail, B. P. (2014) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2013.12.012 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A review of Mg isotope analytical methods by MC-ICP-MS
An, Y., & Huang, F. (2014) · Journal of Earth Science · doi:10.1007/s12583-014-0477-8 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The geology and hydrology of the CarbFix2 site, SW-Iceland
Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Tómasdóttir, S., Sigfússon, B., Aradóttir, E. S., Gunnarsson, G., Niemi, A., Basirat, F., Dessirier, B., Gíslason, S. R., Oelkers, É. H., et al. (2018) · Energy Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2018.07.019 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationPokharel, R., Gerrits, R., Schuessler, J. A., Floor, G. H., Gorbushina, A. A., & von Blanckenburg, F. (2017) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b01798 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationTowards ‘green’ geothermal energy: Co-mineralization of carbon and sulfur in geothermal reservoirs
Marieni, C., Přikryl, J., Aradóttir, E. S., Gunnarsson, I., & Stefánsson, A. (2018) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2018.07.011 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationMagnesium isotopic composition of olivine from the Earth, Mars, Moon, and pallasite parent body
Norman, M. D., Yaxley, G. M., Bennett, V. C., & Brandon, A. D. (2006) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2006gl026446 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Rezvani Khalilabad, M., Axelsson, G., & Gislason, S. R. (2008) · Mineralogical Magazine · doi:10.1180/minmag.2008.072.1.121 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationMcGrail, B. P., Freeman, C. J., Brown, C. F., Sullivan, E. C., White, S. K., Reddy, S. N., Garber, R. D., Tobin, D., Gilmartin, J., & Steffensen, E. J. (2012) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.03.009 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Přikryl, J., Stefánsson, A., & Pearce, C. R. (2018) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2018.09.022 · Cited by 19 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Numerous other studies have observed the preferential incorporation of light Mg in Mg-bearing carbonates (Galy et al., 2003; Buhl et al., 2007; Hippler et al., 2009; Immenhauser et al., 2010; Wombacher et al., 2011; Li et al., 2012, 2015; Pearce et al., 2012; Mavromatis et al., 2012, 2013; Shirokova et al., 2012; Bein…”
BackgroundA Review of Mg Isotope Analytical Methods by MC-ICP-MS
Yajun, An, ., Fang, & Huang (2014) · Journal of Earth Science · Cited by 17 · see citing works
CarbFix – public engagement and transparency
Aradóttir, E. S., & Hjálmarsson, E. (2018) · Energy Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2018.07.015 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationAlfreðsson, H. A., Mesfin, K. G., & Wolff-Boenisch, D. (2015) · Greenhouse Gases Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/ghg.1543 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationOpfergelt, S., Georg, R. B., Burton, K. W., Guicharnaud, R., Siebert, C., Gislason, S. R., & Halliday, A. N. (2011) · Digital Access to Libraries · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Quantification of CO2 Mineralization at the Wallula Basalt Pilot Project
White, S. K., Spane, F. A., Schaef, H. T., Miller, Q. R. S., White, M. D., Horner, J. A., & McGrail, B. P. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c05142 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Clark, D. E., Oelkers, E. H., Gunnarsson, I., Sigfússon, B., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Aradóttir, E. S., & Gíslason, S. R. (2020) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2020.03.039 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Self-citationRapid CO2 mineralisation into calcite at the CarbFix storage site quantified using calcium isotopes
Pogge von Strandmann, P. A. E., Burton, K. W., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. O., Sigfússon, B., Aradóttir, E. S., Gunnarsson, I., Alfredsson, H. A., Mesfin, K. G., Oelkers, E. H., & Gislason, S. R. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10003-8 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationGroundwater Microbial Communities in Times of Climate Change
Retter, A., Karwautz, C., & Griebler, C. (2020) · Current Issues in Molecular Biology · doi:10.21775/cimb.041.509 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Yu, L., Daniels, L. M., Mulders, J. J. P. A., Saldi, G. D., Harrison, A. L., Li, L., & Oelkers, É. H. (2019) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.08.005 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Erol, S., Akın, T., Bąser, A., Saraçoğlu, Ö., & Akın, S. (2021) · Geothermics · doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2021.102271 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Chen, B., Li, S., von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Wilson, D. J., Zhong, J., Ma, T., Sun, J., & Liu, C. (2023) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2023.01.003 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Oskierski, H. C., Beinlich, A., Mavromatis, V., Altarawneh, M., & Dlugogorski, B. Z. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.07.019 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Magnesium isotope fractionation during hydrothermal seawater-basalt interaction
Voigt, M., Pearce, C. R., Fries, D. M., Baldermann, A., & Oelkers, É. H. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.12.026 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Fuhr, M., Ghasemizadeh, A., Geisler, T., & Kersten, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.827698 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Monasterio-Guillot, L., Lorenzo, F. D., Ruíz-Agudo, E., & Rodriguez-Navarro, C. M. (2019) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.06.011 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Progress, challenges, and prospects of CO2 mineral sequestration in basalt: A critical review
Yin, Y., Zhang, L., Cao, X., Li, Q., Gan, M., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.125127 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Cation Exchange in Smectites as a New Approach to Mineral Carbonation
Zeyen, N., Wang, B., Wilson, S., Paulo, C., Stubbs, A. R., Power, I., Steele‐MacInnis, M., Lanzirotti, A., Newville, M. G., Paterson, D. J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.913632 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Holdsworth, C. M., John, C. M., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Johnson, G., Sigfússon, B., Leslie, R., Haszeldine, R. S., & Gilfillan, S. M. V. (2024) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2024.105925 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationHarrison, A. L., Bénézeth, P., Jacques Schott, A., Oelkers, É. H., & Mavromatis, V. (2020) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2020.10.028 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The lithium and magnesium isotope signature of olivine dissolution in soil experiments
von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Renforth, P., West, A. J., Murphy, M. J., Luu, T.-H., & Henderson, G. M. (2020) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.120008 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Hendry, K., Hatton, J., & Robinson, L. F. (2019) · Frontiers in Earth Science · doi:10.3389/feart.2019.00240 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Oskierski, H. C., Turvey, C., Wilson, S., Dlugogorski, B. Z., Altarawneh, M., & Mavromatis, V. (2021) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.06.020 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Niron, H., Vienne, A., Frings, P. J., Poetra, R. P., & Vicca, S. (2024) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.17511 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Parts-Per-Million Carbonate Mineral Quantification with Thermogravimetric Analysis–Mass Spectrometry
Bartels, M. F., Miller, Q. R. S., Cao, R., Lahiri, N., Holliman, J. E., Stanfield, C. H., & Schaef, H. T. (2024) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03936 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Acid‐pH Weathering of Pyroxenes
Monasterio-Guillot, L., Rodriguez-Navarro, C. M., & Ruíz-Agudo, E. (2021) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2021gc009711 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
CO2 sequestration in geological formations: Insights into mineral reactions and reservoir dynamics
Nazari, N., Taylor, S. D., & Mostowfi, F. (2025) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2025.105200 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Experimental determination of the reactivity of basalts as a function of their degree of alteration
Delerce, S., Heřmanská, M., Bénézeth, P., Schott, J., & Oelkers, É. H. (2023) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2023.09.007 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Olsson, J., Luu, T.-H., Gíslason, S. R., & Burton, K. W. (2019) · Frontiers in Earth Science · doi:10.3389/feart.2019.00006 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Mavromatis, V., Power, I., Harrison, A. L., Beinlich, A., Dipple, G. M., & Bénézeth, P. (2021) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120325 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Seasonal variability in silicate weathering signatures recorded by Li isotopes in cave drip-waters
Wilson, D. J., von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., White, J., Tarbuck, G. M., Marca, A. D., Atkinson, T. C., & Hopley, P. J. (2021) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.07.006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Li, X., Nienhuis, E. T., Nagurney, A. B., Miller, Q. R. S., Zhang, X., & Schaef, H. T. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00699 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Zhu, B., Wilson, S., Raudsepp, M. J., Vessey, C. J., Zeyen, N., Safari, S., Snihur, K. N., Wang, B., Riechelmann, S., Paulo, C., et al. (2022) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105380 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Iff, N., Renforth, P., & von Strandmann, P. A. E. P. (2024) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2024.1252210 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Groundwater Microbial Communities in Times of Climate Change
Retter, A., Karwautz, C., & Griebler, C. (2020) · Caister Academic Press eBooks · doi:10.21775/9781913652579.13 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Comparing open versus closed system weathering experiments using lithium isotopes
von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., He, X., Zhou, Y., & Wilson, D. J. (2025) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2025.106458 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Influence of Iron Substitution and Solution Composition on Brucite Carbonation
Vessey, C. J., Raudsepp, M. J., Patel, A. S., Wilson, S., Harrison, A. L., Chen, N., & Chen, W. (2024) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c08708 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bijma, J., Hagens, M., Hammes, J. S., Planavsky, N. J., von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Reershemius, T., Reinhard, C. T., Renforth, P., Suhrhoff, T. J., Vicca, S., et al. (2026) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-23-53-2026 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Burton, K. W., Opfergelt, S., Eiríksdóttir, E. S., Murphy, M. J., Einarsson, Á., & Gíslason, S. R. (2020) · Frontiers in Earth Science · doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00109 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Miller, Q. R. S., Bartels, M. F., Chopra, H., Depp, C. T., DiRaddo, S., Gibson, M. N. M., Lahiri, N., Lamberti, V. R., Rivera, N. V. L., Maier, K. L., et al. (2026) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5c00716 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Clark, D. E., Galeczka, I. M., Gíslason, S. R., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Gunnarsson, I., & Oelkers, É. H. (2025) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2025.104526 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationCO₂ Mineralization Technologies Across Industrial and Geological Settings: Trends and Advances
Cheng, H., Wang, J., Song, H., Wang, B., & Ma, Z. (2025) · Mining Metallurgy & Exploration · doi:10.1007/s42461-025-01331-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lincker, M., Druhan, J. L., Guillon, S., & Lagneau, V. (2021) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120143 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Stubbs, A. R., MacDonald, J., & Neill, I. (2024) · Scottish Journal of Geology · doi:10.1144/sjg2024-003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Saldi, G. D., Decrausaz, T., Mavromatis, V., & Bénézeth, P. (2025) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2025.01.029 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Permanent Storage of CO2 in Mexican Igneous Rocks
Apodaca, E. C., Ortiz-Lucas, P., Gómora‐Figueroa, A. P., Mancera-Alejándrez, J., & González-Torres, E. A. (2019) · SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition · doi:10.2118/195964-ms · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pierozzi, A., Faulkner, N., Szucs, A. M., Terribili, L., Maddin, M., Meloni, F., Devkota, K., Zubovic, K. P., Guyett, P. C., & Rodriguez-Blanco, J. D. (2025) · Carbon Capture Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.ccst.2025.100510 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wolff-Boenisch, D., & Vialle, S. (2025) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2025.106603 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Holdsworth, C. M., Chen, B., Tamraz, L., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Voigt, M., Sigfússon, B., Johnson, G., Stuart, F. M., Boyce, A. J., Haszeldine, R. S., et al. (2026) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2026.104584 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationGill, M., Babechuk, M. G., & Morrill, P. L. (2026) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2026.123288 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Natural CO2 sequestration: mechanisms and conditions of carbonate precipitation in basalt
Rosenqvist, M. P., Dunkel, K. G., Nogueira, L. P., Planke, S., Polteau, S., Ardit, M., Nestola, F., & Menegon, L. (2026) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2026.07.013
Mavromatis, V., Power, I., Harrison, A. L., Beinlich, A., Dipple, G. M., & Bénézeth, P. (2021) · Goldschmidt Abstracts · doi:10.7185/gold2021.3881 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kalbani, M. A., McClure, M., Fowler, G., Serati, M., Hofmann, H., Ritchie, T., & Boré, T. (2025) · SPE Journal · doi:10.2118/231162-pa
Microbial and abiotic approaches to carbonating stevensite: what works and what doesn’t
Arizaleta, M. L., Raudsepp, M. J., Zeyen, N., Kenney, J. P. L., Snihur, K. N., Alessi, D. S., & Wilson, S. (2025) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2025.12.052
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- Authors
- Oelkers, E. H., Butcher, R., Pogge von Strandmann, P. A. E., Schuessler, J. A., von Blanckenburg, F., Snæbjörnsdóttir, S. Ó., Mesfin, K., Aradóttir, E. S., Gunnarsson, I., Sigfússon, B., Gunnlaugsson, E., Matter, J. M., Stute, M., & Gislason, S. R.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences (DE)
- University of Iceland (IS)
- Reykjavík Energy (Iceland) (IS)
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (US)
- Venue
- Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 245
- Pages
- 542-555
- ISSN
- 0016-7037 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2901035054
- Semantic Scholar
- 6517c9d66ea93ffe8a4abbfda203db5613455567
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8
- FWCI
- 3.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Publication Database GFZ (GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences) (submittedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Orkuveita Reykjavíkur
- U.S. Department of Energy (DE-FE0004847)
- European Commission (317235, 764760, MC-RTN-35488, PITN-GA-2008-215360)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › CO2 Sequestration and Geologic Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Groundwater and Isotope Geochemistry
- Keywords
- CarbFix, magnesium carbonate, isotope mass balance, carbon storage, subsurface fluids, CO2 sequestration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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