CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 166Power Quality and HarmonicsOptimal Power Flow DistributionElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Impact of rapid PV fluctuations on power quality in the low-voltage grid and mitigation strategies using electric vehicles

Open access
Brinkel, N.B.G., Gerritsma, M.K., AlSkaif, T.A., Lampropoulos, I., van Voorden, A.M., Fidder, H.A., van Sark, W.G.J.H.M.·2020·International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
DOI 10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.105741
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Cloud transients cause rapid fluctuations in the output of photovoltaic (PV) systems, which can significantly affect the voltage levels in a low-voltage (LV) grid with high penetration of PV systems. These voltage fluctuations may lead to violation of the existing power quality standards. This study estimates the impact of rapid PV output fluctuations on the power quality in an existing LV grid by performing load flow analyses for scenarios in the years 2017, 2030 and 2050 using PV data with 20-second resolution. In this study, we propose a system for the mitigation of PV output fluctuations by altering the charging processes of electric vehicles (EVs) and we assess the effectiveness of the proposed system. Results indicate that PV output fluctuations have minor impact on the voltage levels in the year 2030, but PV output fluctuations induce considerable voltage fluctuations in the year 2050. The magnitude of the voltage fluctuations is dependent on the location in the grid, the installed PV capacity and the grid configuration. These voltage fluctuations can induce visible and annoying light flicker for a significant part of the day in the year 2050. Implementing the proposed system shows that EV technology can contribute in reducing the amount of visible and annoying light flicker considerably, however at the expense of increased charging costs for EV owners.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study uses 20-second PV generation data and load-flow analysis of an existing Utrecht low-voltage grid to estimate voltage fluctuations and flicker in 2017, 2030, and 2050, and tests EV smart charging/V2G to mitigate them. It finds minor impact until 2030 but considerable flicker risk in 2050, which EV charging can reduce at increased charging cost.

Key findings

  • PV output fluctuations have minor impact on voltage levels in 2030, but induce considerable voltage fluctuations in 2050; impact is highest at the end of feeder lines, minor near the transformer, and depends on installed PV capacity and grid configuration.
  • In 2050 on a summer day with high PV fluctuations, visible light flicker (>1.6 V/20 s) occurs up to 12.8% of the time between 9:00 and 17:00 and annoying flicker (>3.6 V/20 s) up to 2.1% at the end of a feeder line with high installed PV capacity; 2017 values are 0.0% for both, and 2030 summer high-fluctuation values are 1.4% visible and 0.0% annoying.
  • EV mitigation reduces visible and annoying flicker for all tested maximum allowable residual load ramp rates; least flicker occurs with a maximum allowable ramp rate between 20 and 25 kW/20 s. In 2050, EVs can mitigate residual load fluctuations to 1 kW/20 s in all model runs, but in some 2030 runs only to 89 kW/20 s without V2G and 64 kW/20 s with V2G due to low numbers of connected EVs.
  • Higher installed PV capacity increases flicker: at 440 kWp base, 12.8% visible and 2.1% annoying; at 886 kWp, 21.8% visible and 12.1% annoying. Increased charging costs are higher on days with high PV output fluctuations and for scenarios with V2G.

Methods

  • Case study of an existing LV grid in the Lombok district, Utrecht, the Netherlands, serving 340 grid connections with 19 feeder lines; scenarios for 2017, 2030, and 2050, including summer/winter days with high and low PV output fluctuations.
  • Inputs include 20-second PV generation profiles from the Dutch Solar Forecasting and Smart Grids project, EV charging transactions from the Smart Solar Charging database and a probabilistic model, and residential/heat pump load based on measured consumption, standardized profiles, and projections.
  • EV charging is formulated as a linear programming optimization solved with Gurobi/Python at 20-second time steps using Dutch aFRR prices; V2G roundtrip efficiency is 73% and V2G use is limited to 20% of battery capacity. Voltage levels are determined by load-flow analyses in DIgSILENT PowerFactory using the Newton-Raphson method; mitigation scenarios use eleven model runs per scenario.

Limitations

  • Stated: load-flow assumptions include a constant MV voltage, balanced three-phase load flow, and flicker thresholds based on incandescent light bulbs; the EV charging model assumes perfect foresight and full EV availability, and implementation requires short-timescale data exchange that current regulations may not permit for continuous smart-meter data collection.
  • Stated: the study reports voltage levels on a 20-second timescale, while flicker standards require measurements at a very short timescale (<1 s), so it cannot confirm EN-50160 violation; additional flicker standards or a very-short voltage variation index are suggested.
  • Evident: the paper does not directly compare EV mitigation with alternatives such as grid reinforcement, battery systems, or capacitors, and it states that further studies are required to determine the best mitigation technology.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.105741

Cites

56 of 56 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 57 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    The magnitude of voltage fluctuations is dependent on the location in the grid, the installed PV capacity and the grid configuration.

    “The magnitude of the voltage fluctuations is dependent on the location in the grid, the installed PV capacity and the grid configuration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The simulated voltage levels show an increasing level of variability in voltage levels between 2017 and 2050 at all locations in the grid.

    “The figures show an increasing level of variability in voltage levels between 2017 and 2050 at all locations in the grid.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Implementing the proposed system increases charging costs for EV owners.

    “however at the expense of increased charging costs for EV owners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: All EV charging strategies are based on smart charging, in which aggregators try to minimize the charging costs of EV owners.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In all scenarios, the aggregator aims to minimize the total charging costs of all charging transactions in the assessment timeframe.
  • Findingown data

    PV output fluctuations induce considerable voltage fluctuations in the year 2050.

    “PV output fluctuations induce considerable voltage fluctuations in the year 2050.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Implementing the proposed system shows that EV technology can contribute in reducing the amount of visible and annoying light flicker considerably.

    “Implementing the proposed system shows that EV technology can contribute in reducing the amount of visible and annoying light flicker considerably”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: All EV charging strategies are based on smart charging, in which aggregators try to minimize the charging costs of EV owners.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In all scenarios, the aggregator aims to minimize the total charging costs of all charging transactions in the assessment timeframe.
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Fluctuations in PV generation are a major contributor to voltage fluctuations; voltage fluctuations and PV output fluctuations follow almost identical patterns and show a high correlation.

    “Fluctuations in PV generation are a major contributor to these voltage fluctuations; comparing Fig. 2a and b shows that voltage fluctuations and PV output fluctuations follow almost identical patterns and Fig. 3 shows a high correlation between PV and voltage fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All tested maximum allowable residual load ramp rates lead to lower visible and annoying light flicker at almost all locations, but do not fully eliminate voltage fluctuations and light flicker.

    “The simulation results indicate that all tested maximum allowable residual load ramp rates lead to lower visible and annoying light flicker at almost all locations, but do not fully eliminate voltage fluctuations and light flicker.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; PV generation profile for whole simulation period is already known.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The number of local passenger cars remains constant, using the car possession rate in [80].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: All passenger cars in 2050 will be BEVs, based on the Dutch governmental target to have a 100% zero-emission car fleet by 2050 [81].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The EV fleet (BEV + PHEV) will increase linearly between 2017 and 2050.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ratio PHEV/BEV will decrease linearly from the ratio in 2017 to a ratio of 0 by 2050.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The share of the total number of local EVs performing a charging transaction in the investigated grid in a week remains constant over time for each type of EV.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The growth rate of the number of visiting BEVs and PHEVs per week is assumed to be the same as the growth rate of local BEVs and local PHEVs respectively.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At the end of feeder lines, visible light flicker can occur up to 12.8% of the time between 9:00 and 17:00, and annoying light flicker up to 2.1% of the time.

    “However, at the end of feeder lines, visible light flicker can occur up to 12.8% of the time between 9:00 and 17:00, and annoying light flicker up to 2.1% of the time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The impact of large PV output fluctuations is highest at the end of feeder lines, whereas the impact is minor close to the transformer.

    “The impact of large PV output fluctuations is highest at the end of feeder lines, whereas the impact is minor close to the transformer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The grid configuration is an important determinant for light flicker; the number of light flicker occurrences increases considerably with a weak grid and decreases with a strong grid.

    “From Table 6 it can be concluded that the grid configuration is an important determinant for light flicker; the number of light flicker occurrences increases considerably with a weak grid and decreases with a strong grid.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Other major determinants are the total installed PV capacity in the grid and the grid strength.

    “Other major determinants are the total installed PV capacity in the grid and the grid strength.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The installed PV capacity on a feeder line has minor impact on voltage fluctuations; the voltage fluctuations at the end of the feeder line with a high installed PV capacity are similar to the voltage fluctuations at the feeder line with an average installed PV capacity.

    “Fig.2also indicates that the installed PV capacity on a feeder line has minor impact on voltage fluctuations; the voltage fluctuations at the end of the feeder line with a high installed PV capacity are similar to the voltage fluctuations at the feeder line with an average installed PV capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The level of voltage fluctuations differs between locations in the grid, with the highest voltage fluctuations at the end of feeder lines and the lowest voltage fluctuations next to the transformer.

    “Both figures indicate that the level of voltage fluctuations differs between locations in the grid, with the highest voltage fluctuations at the end of feeder lines and the lowest voltage fluctuations next to the transformer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PV output fluctuations can cause voltage fluctuations in the LV grid, which can result in visible and annoying light flicker for a considerable part of the day.

    “The simulation outcome showed that PV output fluctuations can cause voltage fluctuations in the LV grid, which can result in visible and annoying light flicker for a considerable part of the day.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An empirical analysis of a 1.41 MW PV plant in Florida reported a low correlation between PV power output and measured flicker values.

    “an empirical analysis of a 1.41 MW PV plant in Florida reported a low correlation between PV power output and measured flicker values [11]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A study in a small Finnish LV grid indicated that only fluctuations in PV generation do not induce flicker values that cause violation of power quality standards, but a combination of fluctuating PV power output with continuously connecting and disconnecting loads could result in power quality problems.

    “induce flicker values that cause violation of power quality standards, but that a combination of fluctuating PV power output with continuously connecting and disconnecting loads could result in power quality problems [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Stewart et al. concluded based on Hawaiian solar irradiance data that PV generation does not cause violation of light flicker standards.

    “Stewart et al. [12] concluded based on Hawaiian solar irradiance data that PV generation does not cause violation of the light flicker standards.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    References [31][32][33] propose systems in which an EV charging station for one EV or an EV parking lot is placed behind the PV inverter to capture fluctuations in PV generation; these systems do not provide a system-wide solution, as one set of EVs can only stabilize the output of one PV inverter.

    “References [31][32][33] propose systems in which the EV charging station for one EV or an EV parking lot is placed behind the PV inverter to capture fluctuations in PV generation.These systems do not provide a system-wide solution; one set of EVs can only stabilize the output of one PV inverter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [31]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [32]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [33]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    If the DSO can use part of EV battery capacity for grid services through aggregators, this will reduce required DSO investments and limit societal costs.

    “If the DSO can use part of the battery capacity for grid services through aggregators which combine a pool of EVs [30], this will reduce the required investments by the DSO and will limit the societal costs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Advanced MPPT algorithms in combination with DC-DC converters in PV inverters can reduce voltage drop when a PV system is partially shaded.

    “advanced Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms in combination with DC-DC converters in PV inverters can reduce the voltage drop in case a PV system is partially shaded [20][21][22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [20]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [21]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [22]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Aly et al. proposed a system in which EVs adapt their charging power to compensate for lower PV power injected during a cloud transient.

    “A system in which EVs adapt their charging power to compensate for the lower PV power injected during a cloud transient is proposed by Aly et al. [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A study using a measurement setup for 69 PV modules concluded that fluctuations in PV generation can lead to considerable light flicker values, depending on the metric used.

    “a study using a measurement setup for 69 PV modules concluded that fluctuations in PV generation can lead to considerable light flicker values, depending on the metric used to measure flicker values [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cheng et al. proposed an extensive mitigation strategy for rapid voltage fluctuations using EVs, based on detailed solar forecasts and alterations of OLTC tap positions.

    “The work by Cheng et al. [38] proposes an extensive mitigation strategy for rapid voltage fluctuations by using EVs, based on detailed solar forecasts and alterations of the OLTC tap positions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PV power output fluctuations can be mitigated through reactive power control in PV inverters, but this can have adverse effects on inverter lifetime.

    “PV power output fluctuations can also be mitigated through reactive power control in PV inverters [13,18], but this can have adverse effects on the inverter lifetime [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [18]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [19]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rapid PV output fluctuations cause voltage fluctuations and light flicker in low-voltage grids.

    “The main power quality problems associated with rapid PV output fluctuations are voltage fluctuations and light flicker, which is induced by voltage fluctuations [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Foster et al. determined the increase in charging costs for EV owners in a small 4-bus system, based on a charging algorithm in which EV charging costs are minimized while mitigating rapid PV output fluctuations by EVs.

    “Foster et al. [15] determine the increase in charging costs for EV owners in a small 4-bus system, based on a charging algorithm in which EV charging costs are minimized while mitigating rapid PV output fluctuations by EVs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    On-load tap changers at transformer stations can be used for voltage control in the LV grid, but have limited effect at the end of feeder lines and cannot mitigate rapid voltage fluctuations.

    “On-load tap changers (OLTCs) at transformer stations can be used for voltage control in the LV grid, but have limited effect at the end of feeder lines and cannot mitigate rapid voltage fluctuations [14,15].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [15]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dump loads and diesel generators in combination with battery systems are undesirable for PV fluctuation mitigation, since dump loads dissipate renewable energy and diesel generators have negative environmental impacts.

    “Dump loads [16] and diesel generators in combination with battery systems [17] are undesirable for PV fluctuation mitigation, since dump loads result in dissipation of renewable energy and diesel generators have negative environmental impacts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [17]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The proposed system mitigates PV output fluctuations in the whole LV grid and does not require OLTCs or stationary battery systems for mitigation of PV output fluctuations.

    “In contrast to other proposed systems using EVs, this system mitigates PV output fluctuations in the whole LV grid and does not require OLTCs or stationary battery systems for the mitigation of PV output fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: All EV charging strategies are based on smart charging, in which aggregators try to minimize the charging costs of EV owners.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Eldeeb et al. proposed a combined system of an EV and a stationary battery system to mitigate fluctuation problems.

    “A combined system of an EV and a stationary battery system to mitigate fluctuation problems is proposed by Eldeeb et al. [37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A Malaysian case study demonstrated a positive relationship between installed PV capacity and flicker values, and reported flicker values induced by PV power output fluctuations that violate local flicker limits.

    “A Malaysian case study demonstrated a positive relationship between the installed PV capacity and flicker values, and reported flicker values induced by PV power output fluctuations that violate the local flicker limits [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Voltage fluctuations and flicker can damage electrical appliances, and light flicker can cause annoyance and health problems.

    “Voltage fluctuations and flicker can cause damage to electrical appliances connected to the grid [5] and light flicker can cause annoyance and health problems to people exposed to it [6,7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [7]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Multiple studies have proposed energy storage systems for fluctuation mitigation, including battery systems and capacitors; however, capacitor capacity is limited and battery systems have relatively high investment costs.

    “Multiple studies have proposed the utilization of energy storage systems for fluctuation mitigations, including battery systems [16,[23][24][25][26][27] and capacitors [28,29].However, the capacity of capacitors is limited, while battery systems have relatively high investment costs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [16,[23][24][25][26][27]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [29]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Garcia-Villalobos et al. and Ali et al. propose multi-objective EV charging algorithms with minimization of voltage fluctuations as one objective.

    “Garcia-Villalobos et al. [35] and Ali et al. [36] propose multi-objective EV charging algorithms, with minimization of voltage fluctuations as one of the objectives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [35]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [36]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Figure 3 can be explained by EVs charging simultaneously, triggered by a low electricity price.

    “Figure: 3 can be explained by EVs charging simultaneously, triggered by a low electricity price.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Erratic charging behavior of EVs can cause local voltage fluctuations, as EVs alter their charging behavior based on residual load fluctuations in the whole LV grid, not on the residual load fluctuations of the specific feeder line.

    “This erratic charging behavior of EVs can cause local voltage fluctuations, as EVs alter their charging behavior based on the residual load fluctuations in the whole LV grid, and not on the residual load fluctuations of the specific feeder line.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Residential load, heat pump load and PV generation are inflexible.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The low voltage fluctuations next to the transformer can be explained by two factors: (i) the transformer is located quite far from most PV systems, causing that most PV output fluctuations have been absorbed by previous cables before reaching the transformer; (ii) the transformer connects different feeder lines, causing voltage fluctuations to be absorbed by other feeder lines.

    “The low voltage fluctuations next to the transformer can be explained by two factors: (i) the transformer is located quite far from most PV systems, causing that most PV output fluctuations have been absorbed by previous cables before reaching the transformer; (ii) the transformer connects different feeder lines, causing voltage fluctuations to be absorbed by other feeder lines.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study reports voltage levels on a 20-second timescale, while standards require measurements at a very short timescale (<1s), so this study cannot determine whether standards are violated.

    “standards are violated, as this requires measurements at a very short timescale (<1s) [6], while this study reports the voltage levels on a 20-second timescale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EVs are currently also considered for the provision of other grid services, including the provision of balancing services [72,73] and peak shaving services [74,75].

    “Similarly, EVs are currently also considered for the provision of other grid services, including the provision of balancing services [72,73] and peak shaving services [74,75].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [72]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [73]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [74]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [75]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An EV with V2G-functions forced to charge to mitigate PV output fluctuations at a moment with high electricity prices increases its charging costs and loses the opportunity to generate revenue by injecting electricity to the grid.

    “an EV with V2G-functions that is forced to charge to mitigate PV output fluctuations at a moment with high electricity prices not only increases its charging costs, but also loses the opportunity to generate revenue by injecting electricity to the grid.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; PV generation profile for whole simulation period is already known.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The number of local passenger cars remains constant, using the car possession rate in [80].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: All passenger cars in 2050 will be BEVs, based on the Dutch governmental target to have a 100% zero-emission car fleet by 2050 [81].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The EV fleet (BEV + PHEV) will increase linearly between 2017 and 2050.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ratio PHEV/BEV will decrease linearly from the ratio in 2017 to a ratio of 0 by 2050.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The share of the total number of local EVs performing a charging transaction in the investigated grid in a week remains constant over time for each type of EV.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The growth rate of the number of visiting BEVs and PHEVs per week is assumed to be the same as the growth rate of local BEVs and local PHEVs respectively.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A potential consequence of the reported voltage fluctuations is light flicker, which depends on the frequency and the value of voltage fluctuations.

    “A potential consequence of the reported voltage fluctuations is light flicker, which depends on the frequency and the value of voltage fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With the studied time resolution of 20 s, voltage fluctuations of at least 0.7% of the nominal voltage (1.6 V/20 s) result in visible light flicker, and voltage fluctuations of at least 1.6% of the nominal voltage (3.6 V/20 s) result in annoying light flicker [6].

    “With the studied time resolution of 20 s, voltage fluctuations of at least 0.7% of the nominal voltage (1.6 V/20 s) result in visible light flicker, and voltage fluctuations of at least 1.6% of the nominal voltage (3.6 V/20 s) result in annoying light flicker[6].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A perfect load distribution among the three phases is unrealistic, thus the simulated voltage fluctuations could in practice be higher for one or multiple phases.

    “A perfect load distribution among the three phases is unrealistic, thus the simulated voltage fluctuations could in practice be higher for one or multiple phases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Investments in data communication and data processing infrastructure are a prerequisite for implementation of the proposed system.

    “Investments in data communication and data processing infrastructure are a prerequisite for implementation of the proposed system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sharma et al. [71] indicated that non-dimmable LEDs are more sensitive to light flicker than incandescent light bulbs, whereas dimmable LEDs exhibit less flicker sensitivity.

    “Sharma et al. [71] indicated that non-dimmable LEDs are more sensitive to light flicker than incandescent light bulbs, whereas dimmable LEDs exhibit less flicker sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sharma et al. [71]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    A load flow analysis is a widely-used simulation method within power system analysis to determine power flows, cable and transformer loadings and voltage levels in electricity grids.

    “A load flow analysis is a widely-used simulation method (e.g., [40,41,70]) within the field of power system analysis to determine power flows, cable and transformer loadings and voltage levels in electricity grids.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [40]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [41]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [70]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Due to the ban of sales of incandescent light bulbs in the EU, no incandescent light bulbs will be in use in 2050.

    “Due to the ban of sales of incandescent light bulbs in the EU 6 , no incandescent light bulbs will be in use in 2050.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites EU 6

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As voltage fluctuations in the MV grid induce voltage fluctuations in the LV grid, the reported flicker values could be higher in practice.

    “As voltage fluctuations in the MV grid induce voltage fluctuations in the LV grid, the reported flicker values could be higher in practice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Different studies indicated that PV output fluctuations will not lead to violation of EN-50160 flicker standards [11][12][13].

    “However, different studies indicated that PV output fluctuations will not lead to violation of EN-50160 flicker standards [11][12][13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [11]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [12]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the proposed system architecture, DSOs need access to real-time smart meter data.

    “In the proposed system architecture, DSOs need access to real-time smart meter data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If such models are not available in 2050, the ramp rate mitigation potential will decrease and the increase in charging costs when EVs provide grid support services will be higher.

    “If such models are not available in 2050, the ramp rate mitigation potential will decrease and the increase in charging costs when EVs provide grid support services will be higher.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; PV generation profile for whole simulation period is already known.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gerritsma et al. [54] describe the method used for determining whether an EV is a local or visiting EV.

    “Gerritsma et al.[54] describe the method used for determining whether an EV is a local or visiting EV.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gerritsma et al. [54]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The results of this study were based on different assumptions, including a constant MV level, full-availability of EVs for the mitigation of PV-fluctuations, perfect foresight in PV-generation and flicker threshold values based on incandescent lights.

    “The results of this study were based on different assumptions, including a constant MV level, full-availability of EVs for the mitigation of PV-fluctuations, perfect foresight in PV-generation and flicker threshold values based on incandescent lights.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; PV generation profile for whole simulation period is already known.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Rapid developments in autonomous vehicles or hydrogen vehicles would reduce the number of EV charging transactions in the LV grid and rapid developments in car sharing would reduce the average connection time of EVs, resulting in a lower mitigation potential of rapid PV output fluctuations by EVs and higher costs for the mitigation of flicker through EVs.

    “However, rapid developments in autonomous vehicles or hydrogen vehicles would reduce the number of EV charging transactions in the LV grid and rapid developments in car sharing would reduce the average connection time of EVs, resulting in a lower mitigation potential of rapid PV output fluctuations by EVs and higher costs for the mitigation of flicker through EVs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Crucial to successful implementation of the proposed system architecture is data exchange on a short time scale between components in the grids, aggregators and DSOs.

    “Crucial to successful implementation of the proposed system architecture is data exchange on a short time scale between components in the grids, aggregators and DSOs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
50 of 50

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    All EV charging strategies are based on smart charging, in which aggregators try to minimize the charging costs of EV owners.

    “This study assumes that all EV charging strategies are based on smart charging, in which aggregators try to minimize the charging costs of EV owners.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Residential load, heat pump load and PV generation are inflexible.

    “As the residential load, heat pump load and PV generation are assumed to be inflexible, this constraint can only be met by alterations in EV charging behavior.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Perfect balance between all three phases is assumed.

    “Perfect balance between all three phases is assumed, as (i) this saves computational time and (ii) there is high uncertainty about to which phase future PV systems and EV charging stations will be connected.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In all scenarios, the aggregator aims to minimize the total charging costs of all charging transactions in the assessment timeframe.

    “In all scenarios, the aggregator aims to minimize the total charging costs of all charging transactions n N in the assessment timeframe:”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    PV output fluctuations are higher in summer than in winter.

    “Although PV output fluctuations are higher in summer than in winter”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The grid strength varies between different residential areas in the Netherlands.

    “The grid strength varies between different residential areas in the Netherlands.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid.

    “This study assumed a constant voltage level in the MV grid, while the MV voltage levels fluctuate considerably in practice.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A balanced load flow model was used, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.

    “Additionally, a balanced load flow model was used in the load flow simulations, assuming perfect distribution of loads and PV systems among all three phases.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; PV generation profile for whole simulation period is already known.

    “The used EV charging model assumed perfect foresight; when optimizing the model, the PV generation profile for the whole simulation period is already known to the model.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cloud transients take a few seconds, while flicker standards values are for a large extent based on voltage fluctuations with a shorter duration.

    “Cloud transients take a few seconds, while the flicker standards values are for a large extent based on voltage fluctuations with a shorter duration.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cloud transients can cause rapid fluctuations in the output of PV systems, which may affect the power quality in LV grids.

    “Cloud transients can cause rapid fluctuations in the output of PV systems, which may affect the power quality in LV grids.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The number of local passenger cars remains constant, using the car possession rate in [80].

    “The number of local passenger cars remains constant, using the car possession rate in [80].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    All passenger cars in 2050 will be BEVs, based on the Dutch governmental target to have a 100% zero-emission car fleet by 2050 [81].

    “All passenger cars in 2050 will be BEVs, based on the Dutch governmental target to have a 100% zero-emission car fleet by 2050 [81].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The EV fleet (BEV + PHEV) will increase linearly between 2017 and 2050.

    “The EV fleet (BEV + PHEV) will increase linearly between 2017 and 2050.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The ratio PHEV/BEV will decrease linearly from the ratio in 2017 to a ratio of 0 by 2050.

    “The ratio PHEV/BEV will decrease linearly from the ratio in 2017 to a ratio of 0 by 2050.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The share of the total number of local EVs performing a charging transaction in the investigated grid in a week remains constant over time for each type of EV.

    “The share of the total number of local EVs performing a charging transaction in the investigated grid in a week remains constant over time for each type of EV.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The growth rate of the number of visiting BEVs and PHEVs per week is assumed to be the same as the growth rate of local BEVs and local PHEVs respectively.

    “The growth rate of the number of visiting BEVs and PHEVs per week is assumed to be the same as the growth rate of local BEVs and local PHEVs respectively.”
17 of 17

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Weak-grid results contradict the stated grid-strength effect

    Major

    The text says a weak grid increases flicker, but Table 6 reports less flicker for the weak grid than for the original grid under both thresholds: 12.8% versus 17.4%, and 2.1% versus 7.8%. This reverses a stated conclusion about grid strength.

  • Table 4 gives two thresholds for annoying flicker

    Minor

    Table 4's caption labels annoying light flicker as exceeding 1.6 V/20s, while its column heading uses 3.6 V/20s.

  • Original-grid baseline differs between tables

    Minor

    For the summer 2050 high-PV-fluctuation scenario, Table 6 reports 17.4% visible and 7.8% annoying flicker for the original grid. Table 5 reports 12.8% and 2.1% for its base case at the same location and under the same scenario.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. IEEE Power and Energy Society, IEEE 1453 – IEEE Recommended Practice for the Analysis of Fluctuating Installations on Power Systems, vol. 2015. 2015.
  2. van Melle, 2014, Waarde van slimme netten - Welke waarde creëren slimme oplossingen in het distributienetwerk?, Ecofys
  3. Bletterie, 2007, Impact of Photovoltaic generation on voltage variations-how stochastic is PV, CIRED 19th Int Conf Electr, 0513, 21
  4. J. Quirós-Tortós, L. Ochoa, and T. Butler, “How Electric Vehicles and the Grid Work Together,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., no. October 2018, 2018.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Brinkel, N. B. G., Gerritsma, M. K., AlSkaif, T. A., Lampropoulos, I., van Voorden, A. M., Fidder, H. A., & van Sark, W. G. J. H. M.
Affiliations
Utrecht University (NL)
Corresponding author
Brinkel, N.B.G.
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2020-06
Volume
118
Pages
105741
ISSN
0142-0615 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.105741
OpenAlex
W2997806641
Cited by
166
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 21
FWCI
7.31
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
European Regional Development Fund
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Power Quality and Harmonics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Optimal Power Flow Distribution
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
photovoltaic output fluctuation, cloud transients, low-voltage distribution networks, power quality, voltage fluctuation, electric vehicle charging, light flicker, EV charging cost, photovoltaic penetration, power flow analysis, grid configuration

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review