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Cited by 89Power Quality and HarmonicsElectric Vehicles and InfrastructureOptimal Power Flow Distribution

Probabilistic assessment of the impact of electric vehicles and nonlinear loads on power quality in residential networks

Open access
Rodríguez-Pajarón, Pablo, Hernández, Araceli, Milanović, Jovica V.·2021·International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
DOI 10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.106807
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Abstract

This paper presents a probabilistic methodology to assess the power quality impact (harmonics and voltage unbalance levels) in low voltage residential networks with increased simultaneous integration of nonlinear loads and electric vehicles. The uncertain behavior of these loads is considered in the model by applying a probabilistic approach that accounts for their stochastic allocation and performance. In particular, different electric vehicle charging locations and modes of charge are assumed for the analysis of the electric car impact and weekly demand profiles are considered for the nonlinear loads. A Monte Carlo simulation is performed in order to obtain a probabilistic assessment of power quality with penetration levels of disturbing loads estimated for year 2030 for different penetration levels of electric vehicles in the system and including the interaction with photovoltaic generation. The methodology proposed is applied to the IEEE European Low Voltage network and to a larger 471-buses residential network and results are compared to EN50160 standard limits as the reference framework for low voltage power quality indices.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper proposes a Monte Carlo probabilistic method to assess harmonics and voltage unbalance in low-voltage residential networks with simultaneous electric vehicle (EV) and nonlinear load integration. Applied to IEEE European LV and a 471-bus network, it finds that 3rd harmonic and unbalance are the main power-quality concerns, with EV charging mode and location strongly affecting unbalance and only slightly affecting harmonics.

Key findings

  • In the IEEE European LV feeder, 3rd harmonic is the critical harmonic: 5th and 7th harmonics show almost complete compliance with EN50160 limits, while the median percentage of clients exceeding the 3rd harmonic limit is between 80% and 85% across charging strategies.
  • EV charging can attenuate 3rd harmonic at certain locations due to opposite phase angles: with no EV, about 51% of clients experience 95th THD limit violations in at least 50% of weeks; with 20% EV penetration and charging at bus 53, this falls below 45%.
  • Unbalance is strongly affected by charging mode and location: uncontrolled and controlled charging lead to 58.18% of clients exceeding the unbalance limit in more than 5% of weeks, versus 25.45% with no EV; measured and smart charging reduce this to 27.27%.
  • In the 471-bus Representative European Network #7, median THD violations decrease from 67.3% without EVs to 66.0% at 20% EV and 65.8% at 40% EV, then rise to 66.2% at 60% EV; adding 40% PV reduces violations slightly, e.g. THD median from 67.78% to 63.48% at 0% EV.

Methods

  • A Monte Carlo simulation with 160 simulated weeks, 10-min intervals (1008 per week, 161,280 harmonic injections and three-phase power flows), using OpenDSS and Matlab; outputs are 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonic voltages, THD, and unbalance at all buses, compared to EN50160 95th-percentile limits.
  • Stochastic models cover EV charging start time, duration, battery sizes (54, 24, 16 kWh), charger power (1.44, 3.6, 3 kW), and power factor distribution; residential nonlinear loads use Markov-chain weekly profiles (300 generated, winter period) and measured harmonic spectra; PV generation uses stochastic irradiance and panel sizes.
  • Scenarios include 2030 assumptions of 20% EV and 60% nonlinear loads, four charging modes (measured, uncontrolled, controlled, smart), distributed versus concentrated charging locations, EV penetration levels of 20%, 40%, and 60%, and 40% PV penetration in case study 3.

Limitations

  • Stated: results are representative of the network with the main substation transformer specified in the test feeder, and transformer loading level has a strong influence on power-quality levels and limit compliance.
  • Evident from the text: the study is limited to winter demand profiles, odd harmonic orders up to the 7th, specific 2030 penetration assumptions, and two residential LV networks; the 160-week Monte Carlo run is described as a compromise between simulation time and accuracy.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.106807

Cites

35 of 35 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The simultaneous connection of electric vehicles and power-electronics-based loads can decrease the voltage harmonic content at certain harmonic orders while increasing it at others.

    “The results indicate that the simultaneous connection of EVs and power electronics based loads can result in a potential decrease of the voltage harmonic content of certain harmonic orders while others can be increased.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The error in the frequency of occurrence of 3rd harmonic voltages has a strong elbow between 20 and 100 iterations.

    “As shown in Fig. 5, this error has a strong elbow between 20 and 100 iterations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    With 20% electric vehicle penetration and charging location at bus 53, the percentage of clients with THD limit violations in 50% of the weeks is slightly reduced to below 45%.

    “When 20% EV penetration is considered and charging location is assumed at bus 53, that percentage of clients with THD limit violations in 50% of the weeks is slightly reduced down to below 45%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The existence of EVs has a major influence on unbalance problems in residential networks.

    “Regarding unbalance problems, the existence of EVs has proved to have a major influence, as EV represents a significant single-phase load, added to the prevailing residential load.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: When EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is connected to the network on the same phase as the house.
  • Findingown data

    NL load penetration is crucial for harmonic distortion level.

    “It has been found that NL load penetration is crucial for harmonic distortion level, and phases of the injected harmonic currents are critical since a summation or attenuation effect can be produced by the concurring loads, which leads to different severity of the scenario.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 14
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Voltage unbalance levels can reach non-tolerable values, and these values are influenced by the charging mode and location of the electric vehicles.

    “Unbalance levels can reach non tolerable values that are influenced by the charging mode and location of the EVs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Uncontrolled charging strategy is the worst case regarding unbalance levels.

    “Fig. 10 has been obtained assuming uncontrolled charging strategy which is the worst case regarding unbalance levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: When EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is connected to the network on the same phase as the house.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Impact of PV distributed generation together with EV and residential NL loads has been assessed and a reduction of harmonic and unbalance levels has been detected caused by the reduction of the transformer loading.

    “Impact of PV distributed generation together with EV and residential NL loads has been assessed and a reduction of harmonic and unbalance levels has been detected caused by the reduction of the transformer loading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Harmonic currents injected by PV inverters have very low magnitude and their phase is not aligned with the prevalent harmonic phase.

    “Firstly, harmonic currents injected by PV inverters have very low magnitude and their phase is not aligned with the prevalent harmonic phase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Charging location can affect the distribution of probability of exceeding THD at certain buses but, in general, the severity in the whole network is slightly affected.

    “Charging location can affect the distribution of probability of exceeding THD at certain buses but, in general, the severity in the whole network is slightly affected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Concentrated charging of EVs far from the main substation transformer increases unbalance in the network and results in a small attenuation of 3rd harmonic.

    “Concentrated charging of EVs far from the main substation transformer, increases unbalance in the network and results in a small attenuation of 3 rd harmonic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The most severe conditions regarding voltage unbalances are caused by uncontrolled and controlled EV charging modes (modes that involve simultaneous charging start time).

    “The most severe conditions regarding voltage unbalances are caused by uncontrolled and controlled EV charging modes.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Conclusion · plain
      “As a general conclusion, the modes of charging that involve simultaneous charging start time can lead to severe unbalance problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: When EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is connected to the network on the same phase as the house.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The median percentage of clients whose 95th unbalance percentile exceeds the EN50160 unbalance limit is 53.1% when no EV is connected, 52.7% with 20% EVs, 53.9% with 40% EVs, and 54.4% with 60% EVs.

    “The median is 53.1% when no EV is connected to the network (just the NL loads), 52.7% with 20% EVs, and it increases to 53.9% with 40% EVs and to 54.4% with 60% EVs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The reduction behavior is also observed in Fig. 11(b) regarding the 3rd harmonic EN50160 voltage limit.

    “This behavior is also observed in Fig. 11(b) regarding 3 rd harmonic EN50160 voltage limit.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Locating car parks at buses far away from the substation (or buses far from the transformer in a radial network) increases unbalance problems.

    “It is clear that locating car parks at buses far away from substation will increase unbalance problems.”
    • Also stated in: § 4.1.5. Comparison of different cases and discussion · plain
      “Buses far away from the transformer in a radial network will suffer from more unbalance than those close to the substation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: When EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is connected to the network on the same phase as the house.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The median percentage of clients exceeding the THD percentile limit decreases from 67.3% without EVs to 66.0% with 20% EVs and 65.8% with 40% EVs, and increases again to 66.2% for 60% EVs.

    “It can be observed that the median in the boxplot (represented as a red line) decreases from 67.3% clients without EVs (just NL loads) to 66.0% and 65.8% with 20% and 40% EVs, respectively, and it increases again to 66.2% for 60% EVs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Increasing the number of iterations from 100 to 400 or 1000 does not decrease the error proportionally, while it does increase computation time.

    “This means increasing number of iterations from 100 to 400 or 1000 does not decrease error proportionally, when time does.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    160 Monte Carlo simulations are performed according to convergence studies.

    “In this case, 160 simulations are performed according to the convergence studies described in Section 3.3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The output obtained from the set of Monte Carlo simulations is statistically representative of the range of expected output values.

    “The output obtained from the set of simulations is statistically representative of the range of expected output values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The simulation is rerun over 160 weeks so that the results obtained in the set of simulations can be representative of all possible power quality output values.

    “In order to assess statistically its probability, the simulation is rerun over a large number of iterations (in this study 160 weeks have been simulated) so that results obtained in the set of simulations can be representative of all possible PQ output values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The result is consistent with the compensation effect of the 3rd harmonic observed in the previous case study (European LV test feeder) and explained in Section 4.1.1.

    “This result is consistent with the compensation effect of the 3 rd harmonic observed in the previous case study (European LV test feeder) and explained in Section 4.1.1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Phases of the injected harmonic currents are critical since a summation or attenuation effect can be produced by the concurring loads, which leads to different severity of the scenario.

    “It has been found that NL load penetration is crucial for harmonic distortion level, and phases of the injected harmonic currents are critical since a summation or attenuation effect can be produced by the concurring loads, which leads to different severity of the scenario.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The scenario with uncontrolled charging mode and concentrated charging locations at car parks is the most critical regarding PQ.

    “The scenario with uncontrolled charging mode and concentrated charging locations at car parks has been selected as it is considered to be the most critical regarding PQ.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Results shown in this section are representative of the network with the main substation transformer specified by [20].

    “Results shown in this section are representative of the network with the main substation transformer specified by [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to EN50160, during 95% of the week, voltage disturbances calculated in 10-min intervals should not exceed 2% for unbalance; 5%, 6% and 5% for 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonic voltage, respectively; and 8% for voltage THD.

    “According to standard [15], during 95% of the week, voltage disturbances calculated in 10 min intervals should not exceed 2% limit for unbalance; 5%, 6% and 5% for 3 rd , 5 th and 7 th harmonic voltage, respectively, and 8% for voltage THD.”
    • Also stated in: § 4.1.1. Harmonic analysis for different EV charging locations · plain
      “According to EN50160, the 95 th percentile of THD values measured in 10 min periods over a week must be below 8%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The harmonic voltage thresholds of EN50160 have very similar values in IEEE Std.519.

    “These harmonic voltage thresholds have very similar values in standard IEEE Std.519 [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The same approach and methodology is valid to compare the system performance to different standards, such as IEEE Std.519 or any other, and to establish non-compliance with the limits.

    “The same approach and methodology is also valid to compare the system performance to different standards, such as IEEE Std.519 or any other, and to establish non-compliance with the limits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A reduction of the transformer loading ratio implies an increase in fundamental voltages and a reduction of PQ indices expressed as a percentage of fundamental voltage.

    “This reduction of the transformer loading ratio implies an increase in fundamental voltages and, namely, a reduction of PQ indices expressed as a percentage of fundamental voltage [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    60% of residential loads will be power-electronics-based in 2030.

    “Taking into account that penetration of electronic-based loads is increasing, this study also assumes 60% residential loads will be power-electronic-based in 2030, according to estimations proposed in [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The winter period has higher demand and power quality disturbances reach higher severity levels.

    “These demand profiles have been calculated for winter period where demand is higher and PQ disturbances reach higher severity levels [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

25 of 25

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Residential load and electric vehicle demand profiles show great variability along the week and from one week to another.

    “Demand profiles of residential loads and EV show great variability along the week and from one week to another.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many of the loads included in the residential demand are nonlinear.

    “Many of the loads that are included in this residential demand are NL.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The interaction between electric vehicles and nonlinear residential loads is influential and produces an attenuation effect at certain harmonic orders.

    “However, these previous studies neglect the interaction between EVs and NL residential loads which has been proved to be influential and to produce an attenuation effect at certain harmonic orders.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    When EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is connected to the network on the same phase as the house.

    “For this study, when EVs are charged at a residence, the charger is assumed to be connected to the network to the same phase as the house.”
4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Table 5 is described as both medians and averages

    Minor

    The case-study text says Table 5 reports medians, but the table caption identifies its values as average percentages. These are different summary statistics.

  • Distributed charging described as occurring at a single bus

    Minor

    Distributed charging is defined as charging each EV at a different residence, whereas charging at bus 53 is one of the concentrated car-park locations.

  • Overlapping household-size categories

    Minor

    The categories are presented as parts of a distribution, but the final category, "four or more inhabitants," includes the households already counted as having four inhabitants.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Distribution System Analysis Subcommitteee: Distribution Test Feeder Working Group, IEEE european low voltage test feeder, webpage; 2015. Available: http://sites.ieee.org/pes-testfeeders/resources/.
  2. McGranaghan MF, Santoso S, Dugan RC, Beaty HW. Electrical Power Systems Quality, third ed., New York, US: McGraw-Hill Professional; 2012. p. 255–324. doi:10.1036/9780071761567. · DOI
  3. Std 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, Standard P519, IEEE; 2015. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7050220.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Rodríguez-Pajarón, P., Hernández, A., & Milanović, J. V.
Affiliations
  • Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (ES)
  • University of Manchester (GB)
Corresponding author
Rodríguez-Pajarón, Pablo
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-07
Volume
129
Pages
106807
ISSN
0142-0615 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.106807
OpenAlex
W3128401085
Cited by
89
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 6
FWCI
4.54
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Hispana (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • UPM Digital Archive (Technical University of Madrid) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Power Quality and Harmonics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Optimal Power Flow Distribution
Keywords
electric vehicles, nonlinear loads, power quality, harmonic distortion, voltage unbalance, residential distribution networks, low-voltage distribution networks, probabilistic analysis, photovoltaic generation, Monte Carlo simulation, load uncertainty

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