Determinants of chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools
Abstract
Water and air quality of fifteen swimming pools using chlorine disinfection was measured during eight sampling campaigns in Rennes, France. Concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) and trichloramine (NCl(3)) in air as well as concentrations of parameters, including total organic carbon (TOC), chlorine (free, combined and total), pH, Kjeldhal nitrogen (KN), chloride ions and THMs in water and air temperature, were measured. Water and air samples were collected during 3h in the morning and afternoon, during high and low attendance days, in summer and winter. Data analysis was perfomed by multivariate ordinary least square (OLS) and quantile (QR) regressions, from both data quality and other parameters such as the ratio between the number of visitors and the volume of water available V/W, the proportion of air re-circulated and the number of swimmers during sampling. The geometric means (GM±95% CIs) of the sum of THMs (TTHM) and NCl(3) in air were 74.9±6.7 μg/m(3) and 190±10 μg/m(3), respectively. As expected, concentrations of TTHM in air were correlated to concentrations of TTHM in water. Concentrations of TTHM and NCl(3) in air measured in winter were significantly higher than in summer, depicting that low air exchange rate in winter lead to accumulation of pollutants. NCl(3) (especially at higher quantiles) and TTHM concentrations in air were associated to the number of swimmers. NCl(3) was also linked to air temperature and pH. Moreover TTHM and NCl(3) in air seemed to be affected by additional determinants including the volume of hall and the ratio V/W. In a process of reducing exposure, the OLS regression provides useful information on key parameters influencing concentrations of THMs and NCl(3) in indoor swimming pools. In addition, QR allows identifying factors associated to elevated levels of contamination.
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Only a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between air and water contamination by DBPs.
“Indeed, only a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between air and water contamination by DBPs [29,41,42,43,44,45].”
From Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools (2012) · cites this paper as [29]
Contrary to Lee et al. or Bessonneau et al., we did not observe any consistent correlation between DBPs.
“Indeed, contrary to Lee et al. [47] or Bessonneau et al. [29], we did not observe any consistent correlation between DBPs.”
From Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools (2012) · cites this paper as [29]
The limit of detection for trichloramine using the method developed by Hery et al. is generally in the range of 0.0017-0.01 mg/m3.
“The limit of detection (LOD) for trichloramine using the method developed by H ery et al. (1995,1998) depends on the air volume sampled and the ion chromatographic method used but is generally in the range of 0.0017-0.01mg/m 3 (H ery et al. 1995; Bessonneau et al. 2011; Catto et al. 2012; Nordberg et al. 2012; Parrat et al. 2012; Chu et al. 2013; Afifi and Blatchley 2015).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Bessonneau et al. 2011
An increased number of swimmers in a swimming pool increases the air concentration of trichloramine.
“An increased number of swimmers in a swimming pool increases the air concentration of trichloramine (Jacobs et al. 2007;Bessonneau et al. 2011;Weng et al. 2011;Chu et al. 2013;Fantuzzi et al. 2013;Afifi and Blatchley 2015).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Bessonneau et al. 2011
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Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs
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- Authors
- Bessonneau, V., Derbez, M., Clément, M., & Thomas, O.
- Affiliations
- École des Hautes Études en Santé Publique (FR)
- Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Thomas, Olivier
- Venue
- International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 215
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-85
- ISSN
- 1438-4639 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2057619455
- Cited by
- 79
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 3.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Indoor Air Quality and Microbial Exposure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- indoor swimming pools, chlorination by-products, trihalomethanes, trichloramine, indoor air quality, water quality, chlorine disinfection, air recirculation, seasonal variation, exposure determinants, quantile regression, ordinary least squares
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollutants, Chlorides, Chlorine, Disinfection, France, Humans, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Seasons, Swimming, Temperature, Water, Water Pollutants, Multivariate Analysis, Least-Squares Analysis, Nitrogen Compounds, Trihalomethanes, Halogenation, Water Quality
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