Volatile Disinfection Byproduct Formation Resulting from Chlorination of Organic−Nitrogen Precursors in Swimming Pools
Abstract
Clinical studies have documented the promotion of respiratory ailments (e.g., asthma) among swimmers, especially in indoor swimming pools. Most studies of this behavior have identified trichloramine (NCl3) as the causative agent for these respiratory ailments; however, the analytical methods employed in these studies were not suited for identification or quantification of other volatile disinfection byproducts (DPBs) that could also contribute to this process. To address this issue, volatile DBP formation resulting from the chlorination of four model compounds (creatinine, urea, L-histidine, and L-arginine) was investigated over a range of chlorine/precursor (Cl/P) molar ratios. Trichloramine was observed to result from chlorination of all four model organic-nitrogen compounds. In addition to trichloramine, dichloromethylamine (CH3NCl2) was detected in the chlorination of creatinine, while cyanogen chloride (CNCl) and dichoroacetonitrile (CNCHCl2) were identified in the chlorination of L-histidine. Roughly 0.1 mg/L (as Cl2) NCl3, 0.01 mg/L CNCHCl2, and 0.01 mg/L CH3NCl2 were also observed in actual swimming pool water samples. DPD/FAS titration and MIMS (membrane introduction mass spectrometry) were both employed to measure residual chlorine and DBPs. The combined application of these methods allowed for identification of sources of interference in the conventional method (DPD/FAS), as well as structural information about the volatile DBPs that formed. The analysis by MIMS clearly indicates that volatile DBP formation in swimming pools is not limited to inorganic chloramines and haloforms. Additional experimentation allowed for the identification of possible reaction pathways to describe the formation of these DBPs from the precursor compounds used in this study.
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Only a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between air and water contamination by DBPs.
“Indeed, only a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between air and water contamination by DBPs [29,41,42,43,44,45].”
From Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools (2012) · cites this paper as [43]
A few other N-DBPs, including organic chloramines and nitrosamines, several of which are carcinogenic, have been reported in swimming pool waters.
“A few other N-DBPs also have been reported in swimming pool waters, including organic chloramines (Li and Blatchley 2007), and nitrosamines (Walse and Mitch 2008), several of which are carcinogenic.”
From What’s in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water (2010) · cites this paper as Li and Blatchley 2007
The "combined chlorine" in swimming pools can often be dominated by organic chloramines.
“However, the “combined chlorine” in swimming pools can often be dominated by organic chloramines (Li and Blatchley 2007) and the responses of these compounds to existing shock chlorination practices are largely unknown.”
From Childhood asthma and environmental exposures at swimming pools: state of the science and research recommendations (2009) · cites this paper as Li and Blatchley 2007
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- Authors
- Li, J., & Blatchley, E. R.
- Affiliations
- Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2007-09-05
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 6732-6739
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2021929317
- Cited by
- 177
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 6.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Antimicrobial agents and applications
- Keywords
- chlorination, swimming pools, trichloramine, cyanogen chloride, creatinine, urea, histidine, L-arginine, membrane inlet mass spectrometry, reaction pathways
- MeSH terms
- Chloramines, Chlorides, Chlorine, Creatinine, Disinfectants, Disinfection, Histidine, Mass Spectrometry, Swimming, Volatilization, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Nitrogen Compounds, Water Purification
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