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Human behaviour and the epidemiology of parasitic zoonoses
Abstract
The behaviour of Homo sapiens has a pivotal role to play in the macro and microepidemiology of emerging or re-emerging parasitic zoonoses. Changing demographics and the concomitant alterations to the environment, climate, technology, land use and changes in human behavior, converge to favour the emergence and spread of parasitic zoonoses. The recent unprecedented movements of people, their animals and their parasites around the world, introduce and mix genes, cultural preferences, customs, and behavioral patterns. The increasing proclivity for eating meat, fish, crabs, shrimp, molluscs raw, undercooked, smoked, pickled or dried facilitates a number of protozoan (Toxoplasma), trematode (Fasciola sp., Paragonimus spp., Clonorchis sp., Opisthorchis spp., Heterophyes sp., Metagonimus sp., Echinostoma spp., Nanophyetus sp.) cestode (Taenia spp, Diphyllobothrum sp.) and nematode (Trichinella spp., Capillaria spp., Gnathostoma spp., Anisakis sp., Parastrongylus spp.) caused zoonoses. The increasing world population and the inability to keep pace with the provision of adequate sanitation and clean, safe drinking water, has led to an increased importance of waterborne zoonoses, such as those caused by Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma. Our close relationship with and the numerous uses to which we put companion animals and their ubiquitous distribution has resulted in dogs and cats unwitting participation in sharing over 60 parasite species including: Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, most foodborne trematode species, Diphyllobothrum, Echinococcus spp., Ancylostoma and Toxocara. Changing human behaviour through education, to encourage the proper cooking of food, which may have cultural and social significance, will remain as challenging as controlling stray and feral pet populations, improving hygiene levels and the provision of safe drinking water and the proper use of sanctuary facilities. Long pre-patent periods and the normally insidious sub-clinical nature of most zoonoses makes advice requiring behavioural change for their control a difficult task. Our clearer understanding of the heterogeneity of susceptibility to infection, the complex genetic variations of people and parasite species and the development of molecular epidemiological tools is shedding more light on transmission routes and the spectrum of disease that is observed. Improved and new serological, molecular and imaging diagnostic tests and the development of broad spectrum chemotherapeutic agents has led to the attenuation of morbidity and mortality due to parasitic zoonoses in economically advantaged regions. Such advancements, in partnership with supportive behavioural change, has the potential for a sustainable global reduction in the burden of ill health due to parasitic zoonoses. Whether this will materialise is a challenge for us all.
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“but there is also a potential direct infection route to humans from raw meat (Macpherson 2005).”
From Raw diets for dogs and cats: a review, with particular reference to microbiological hazards. (2019) · cites this paper as Macpherson 2005
In the citing paper
“Several helminths and protozoa have been proposed as potential pathogenic risks for raw‐fed cats and dogs and/or for in‐contact owners and livestock.”
From Raw diets for dogs and cats: a review, with particular reference to microbiological hazards. (2019) · cites this paper as Macpherson 2005
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“Enhanced diagnostics are uncovering that many zoonoses have a higher burden than previously understood (Macpherson, 2005).”
BackgroundDetection of Toxocara cati Larvae from Ostrich and Wild Boar Meat Intended for Human Consumption
Michelutti, A., Sgubin, S., Falcaro, C., Cagnin, V., Zoroaster, A., & Danesi, P. (2021) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens10101290 · Cited by 15
“The growing habit of eating raw or undercooked meat, typical of many cultures [21,22], significantly increases consumer exposure to zoonotic parasites which can cause severe disease [23].”
BackgroundColombo, F. M., Cattaneo, P., Castelletti, M., & Bernardi, C. E. M. (2015) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2012.755947 · Cited by 15
Wierzbowska, I. A., Kornaś, S. A., Piontek, A. M., & Rola, K. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10040748 · Cited by 15
“One of the possible infection routes is by ingestion of oocysts, which are shed by domestic and wild felids [20].”
BackgroundLavallén, C. M., Dopchiz, M. C., Lobianco, E., & Denegri, G. M. (2015) · Revista Veterinaria · doi:10.30972/vet.22119 · Cited by 15
Risk perception about zoonoses in immigrants and Italian workers in Northwestern Italy
Cediel, N. M., Conte, V., Tomassone, L., Tiberti, D., Guiso, P., Romero, J., Jiménez, L. C. V., & Meneghi, D. D. (2012) · Revista de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/s0034-89102012000500012 · Cited by 15
Wilson, A., Fehlner‐Gardiner, C., Wilson, S., Pierce, K. N., McGregor, G. F., González, C., & Luszcz, T. M. J. (2022) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0000357 · Cited by 14
Awareness of parasitic zoonotic diseases among pet owners in Cairo, Egypt
Taha, N. M., Sabry, M. A., El‐Bahy, M. M., & Ramadan, R. M. (2024) · Veterinary Parasitology Regional Studies and Reports · doi:10.1016/j.vprsr.2024.101025 · Cited by 14
Toxoplasmosis as a complication of transfusion in hemodialysis patients.
Zadeh, A. E., Bamedi, T., Etemadi, S., Shahrakipour, M., & Saryazdipour, K. (2014) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 14
Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Wild Rats (Rattus rattus) in Northern Iran
Hosseini, S. A., Abediankenari, S., Amouei, A., Sarvi, S., Sharif, M., Rezaei, F., & Daryani, A. (2021) · Veterinary Medicine International · doi:10.1155/2021/6655696 · Cited by 14
“It is responsible for one of the most widespread zoonotic protozoan infections that is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals but may cause serious complications in immunocompromised hosts [2].”
BackgroundProkop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2011) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi1104281p · Cited by 14
Šarkūnas, M., Vienažindienė, Ž., Rojas, C. A. Á., Radziulis, K., & Deplazes, P. (2019) · Food and Waterborne Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00043 · Cited by 14
“Socio-cultural factors determine the livestock spectrum in an area (e.g. pig production) or influence parasite transmission based on traditional habits (Macpherson, 2005).”
BackgroundViñas, M., Postigo, I., Suñén, E., & Martı́nez, J. (2020) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0008177 · Cited by 14
Hancke, D., & Suárez, O. V. (2013) · EcoHealth · doi:10.1007/s10393-013-0879-6 · Cited by 14
“Education is the foundation of any rodent control program as it can provide the correct message, sustainable alternatives and affordable solutions to obtain a behavioral change in affected communities (Lambropoulos et al. 1999; Macpherson 2005; Fernández et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMenconi, V., Tedesco, P., Pastorino, P., Confortini, I., Esposito, G., Tomasoni, M., Mugetti, D., Gustinelli, A., Dondo, A., Pizzul, E., et al. (2021) · Water · doi:10.3390/w13243581 · Cited by 13
Predictors of access to safe drinking water: policy implications
Shadabi, L., & Ward, F. A. (2022) · Water Policy · doi:10.2166/wp.2022.037 · Cited by 15
The potential immunomodulatory effect of levamisole in humans and farm animals
Gholami, M. H., Rassouli, A., Mirzaei, S., & Hashemi, F. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research · doi:10.5455/javar.2023.j717 · Cited by 13
Thi, N. V., Pozio, E., De, N. V., Praet, N., Pezzotti, P., Gabriël, S., Claes, M., Thúy, N. T. D., & Dorny, P. (2014) · Acta Tropica · doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.07.012 · Cited by 13
“Facilities for the diagnosis of trichinellosis in humans should be improved in provincial hospitals because limited access to diagnosis means that most emerging or re-emerging zoonoses remain unrecognized (Macpherson, 2005).”
BackgroundTull, A., Valdmann, H., Rannap, R., Kaasiku, T., Tammeleht, E., & Saarma, U. (2022) · Journal of Helminthology · doi:10.1017/s0022149x22000116 · Cited by 18
Okagawa, Y., Sumiyoshi, T., Imagawa, T., Sakano, H., Tamura, F., Arihara, Y., Kanari, Y., Sakurada, A., Oiwa, S., Jin, T., et al. (2023) · BMC Gastroenterology · doi:10.1186/s12876-023-02880-7 · Cited by 12
dos Santos, L. U., Neto, R. C., Franco, R. M. B., & Guimarães, J. R. (2011) · Engenharia Sanitaria e Ambiental · doi:10.1590/s1413-41522011000200003 · Cited by 12
Mason, M., Gonzalez, M., Hodges, J. S., & Muñoz‐Zanzi, C. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-1964-2 · Cited by 13
“, gloves and boots) [16, 20, 22, 23], as well as rodent control measures such as proper food handling and storage, trash and waste disposal [24–26].”
BackgroundEfficacy of a chlorocresol-based disinfectant product on Toxocara canis eggs
Zhang, S., Angel, C., Gu, X., Liu, Y., Li, Y., Wang, L., Zhou, X., He, R., Peng, X., Yang, G., et al. (2020) · Parasitology Research · doi:10.1007/s00436-020-06769-2 · Cited by 12
“…larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), eosinophilic meningoencephalitis (EME), covert toxocariasis (CT), and neurological toxocariasis (NLM) (Chen et al. 2018; Congdon and Lloyd 2011; Despommier 2003; Ma et al. 2018; Macpherson 2005; Rubinsky-Elefant et al. 2010; Smith et al. 2009).”
BackgroundTadesse, M., Ayana, D., Kumsa, B., & Fromsa, A. (2020) · Ethiopian Veterinary Journal · doi:10.4314/evj.v24i1.7 · Cited by 12
Infectious agents and gene–environmental interactions in the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia
Yolken, R. H., & Torrey, Ε. F. (2006) · Clinical Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2006.05.003 · Cited by 12
Defining and averting syndemic pathways in aquaculture: a major global food sector
Stentiford, G. D., Tyler, C. R., Ellis, R. P., Bean, T. P., MacKenzie, S. A., Brugere, C., Holt, C. C., Peeler, E. J., Christison, K. W., Rushton, J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · doi:10.3389/fsufs.2023.1281447 · Cited by 11
Gastrointestinal parasites of six large mammals in the Wasgomuwa National Park, Sri Lanka
Hewavithana, D. K., Wijesinghe, M. R., & Udagama, P. V. (2021) · International Journal for Parasitology Parasites and Wildlife · doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.11.008 · Cited by 11
“Parasitic surveys are indeed fundamental to understanding the life cycle of parasites and the potential transmissions to other animals, and to humans (Macpherson 2005).”
BackgroundYang, J., Okyere, S. K., Zheng, J., Cao, B., & Hu, Y. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12141816 · Cited by 12
“Parasitological studies are vital to appreciate the life cycle of parasites and the potential transmission route to other animals and humans [25].”
BackgroundSerological Study of Toxoplasma gondii Infection Using IFA Method in Renal Transplant Recipients
Rostami, M. N., Eskandari, E., Garoosi, Z., Mohajeri, N., Rezaian, M., & Keshavarz, H. (2006) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 11
Study on gastro-intestinal helminth parasites of dogs in Mekelle City Tigray Ethiopia
Gugsa, G., Hailu, T. T., Kalayou, S., Abebe, N., & Hagos, Y. (2015) · Journal of Stored Products and Postharvest Research · doi:10.5897/jpvb2014.0183 · Cited by 13
“Throughout their long history of domestication, dogs have been sources of zoonotic parasites and have served as a link for parasite exchange among livestock, wildlife, and humans (MacPherson, 2005;Salb et al., 2008).”
BackgroundArab‐Mazar, Z., Fallahi, S., Yadegarynia, D., Mamaghani, A. J., Tabaei, S. J. S., Rajaeian, S., & Roodsari, S. R. (2019) · Parasitology · doi:10.1017/s0031182019001033 · Cited by 11
Liu, H., Ni, H., Liu, S., Shen, Y., Wang, R., Cao, J., & Yin, J. (2022) · Microbial Pathogenesis · doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105952 · Cited by 10
Brugere, C., Kumar, G., & Bondad‐Reantaso, M. G. (2025) · Critical Insights in Aquaculture · doi:10.1080/29932181.2024.2441506 · Cited by 10
Environmental risk factors for canine toxoplasmosis in a deprived district of Botucatu, SP, Brazil
Camossi, L. G., Faccioli, P., Menozzi, B. D., Daher, S., & Langoni, H. (2008) · The Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases · doi:10.1590/s1678-91992008000300006 · Cited by 10
ENTERIC PATHOGENS OF DOGS AND CATS WITH PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
Καντερέ, Μ. (2014) · American Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3844/ajavsp.2014.84.94 · Cited by 10
“In Europe, hunting, pet ownership and farming are important risk factors (Macpherson, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialSisay, A., & Lemma, B. (2019) · BMC Research Notes · doi:10.1186/s13104-019-4446-2 · Cited by 10
Riaz, F., Rashid, I., Akbar, H., Shehzad, W., Islam, S., Bajwa, A. A., Saeed, K., & Ashraf, K. (2016) · PubMed Central · Cited by 10
HALL, G., Vally, H., & Kirk, M. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012373960-5.00602-x · Cited by 10
Adhikari, R. B., Ghimire, D., & Ghimire, T. R. (2024) · Veterinary Medicine and Science · doi:10.1002/vms3.70164 · Cited by 9
Effectiveness of a modern antiparasitic agent for deworming in domestic animals
Paliy, A., Petrov, R. P., & Palii, А. P. (2021) · Ukrainian Journal of Ecology · doi:10.15421/2020_3022 · Cited by 9
“Improvements and new serological, molecular, and imaging diagnostic tests and the development of broad-spectrum chemotherapeutic agents have led to significant reductions in morbidity and mortality caused by parasitic zoonoses (Macpherson, 2005).”
BackgroundGado, D. A., Ehizibolo, D. O., Meseko, C. A., Anderson, N. E., & Lurz, P. W. W. (2023) · Zoonotic Diseases · doi:10.3390/zoonoticdis3020012 · Cited by 11
“Parasitic diseases are commonly transmitted via the “direct fecal–oral (animal–human, human–human) route” [55,56].”
BackgroundNeglected zoonotic helminthiases in wild canids: new insights from South America
Uribe, M., Brabec, J., Chaparro-Gutiérrez, J. J., & Hermosilla, C. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2023.1235182 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Macpherson, C. N. L.
- Affiliations
- St. George's University (GD)
- Corresponding author
- Macpherson, Calum N.L.
- Venue
- International Journal for Parasitology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2005-10
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 11-12
- Pages
- 1319-1331
- ISSN
- 0020-7519 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2120235087
- Cited by
- 431
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 2.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal for Parasitology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Parasitic infections in humans and animals
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Zoonotic diseases and public health
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Helminth infection and control
- Keywords
- parasitic zoonoses, human behavior, emerging infectious diseases, foodborne zoonoses, companion animals, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, behavior change, molecular epidemiology, parasite transmission, zoonosis control, Trichinella
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animals, Domestic, Behavior, Communicable Diseases, Humans, Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Plants, Zoonoses, Prevalence, Food Chain
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