Cited by 431Parasitic infections in humans and animalsZoonotic diseases and public healthHelminth infection and control

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Human behaviour and the epidemiology of parasitic zoonoses

Macpherson, Calum N.L.·2005·International Journal for Parasitology

DOI 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.06.004

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Abstract

The behaviour of Homo sapiens has a pivotal role to play in the macro and microepidemiology of emerging or re-emerging parasitic zoonoses. Changing demographics and the concomitant alterations to the environment, climate, technology, land use and changes in human behavior, converge to favour the emergence and spread of parasitic zoonoses. The recent unprecedented movements of people, their animals and their parasites around the world, introduce and mix genes, cultural preferences, customs, and behavioral patterns. The increasing proclivity for eating meat, fish, crabs, shrimp, molluscs raw, undercooked, smoked, pickled or dried facilitates a number of protozoan (Toxoplasma), trematode (Fasciola sp., Paragonimus spp., Clonorchis sp., Opisthorchis spp., Heterophyes sp., Metagonimus sp., Echinostoma spp., Nanophyetus sp.) cestode (Taenia spp, Diphyllobothrum sp.) and nematode (Trichinella spp., Capillaria spp., Gnathostoma spp., Anisakis sp., Parastrongylus spp.) caused zoonoses. The increasing world population and the inability to keep pace with the provision of adequate sanitation and clean, safe drinking water, has led to an increased importance of waterborne zoonoses, such as those caused by Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma. Our close relationship with and the numerous uses to which we put companion animals and their ubiquitous distribution has resulted in dogs and cats unwitting participation in sharing over 60 parasite species including: Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, most foodborne trematode species, Diphyllobothrum, Echinococcus spp., Ancylostoma and Toxocara. Changing human behaviour through education, to encourage the proper cooking of food, which may have cultural and social significance, will remain as challenging as controlling stray and feral pet populations, improving hygiene levels and the provision of safe drinking water and the proper use of sanctuary facilities. Long pre-patent periods and the normally insidious sub-clinical nature of most zoonoses makes advice requiring behavioural change for their control a difficult task. Our clearer understanding of the heterogeneity of susceptibility to infection, the complex genetic variations of people and parasite species and the development of molecular epidemiological tools is shedding more light on transmission routes and the spectrum of disease that is observed. Improved and new serological, molecular and imaging diagnostic tests and the development of broad spectrum chemotherapeutic agents has led to the attenuation of morbidity and mortality due to parasitic zoonoses in economically advantaged regions. Such advancements, in partnership with supportive behavioural change, has the potential for a sustainable global reduction in the burden of ill health due to parasitic zoonoses. Whether this will materialise is a challenge for us all.

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Yarahmadi, S., Saki, J., Arjmand, R., & Shahbazian, H. (2024) · Tropical Medicine and Health · doi:10.1186/s41182-024-00585-5 · Cited by 3
“However, it is typically asymptomatic [1–3].”
Frequency of IgG and IgM against toxoplasma gondii in female students of North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences ,2012-2013
Ali-asghari, F., Shahri, L., Besharati, R., Arzamani, K., & Reaghi, S. (2013) · Journal of North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences · doi:10.29252/jnkums.5.2.405 · Cited by 3
ENVIRONMENTAL PARASITOLOGY: SOIL ANALYSIS FOR GEOHELMINTH LARVAE CONTAMINATION IN ILHÉUS, BAHIA
Silva, Y. S., da Silva, J. M. S., Castro, R. C., Dias, S. O., Carvalho, S. M. S., & da Silva, M. F. (2017) · Revista de Patologia Tropical / Journal of Tropical Pathology · doi:10.5216/rpt.v46i3.49290 · Cited by 3
PARASITOS GASTRINTESTINAIS EM FEZES DE GATOS DOMICILIADOS NO MUNICÍPIO DE PELOTAS, RS, BRASIL
Ferraz, A., Pires, B. D. S., Barwaldt, E. T., dos Santos, E. M., de Lima, C. M., de Castro, T. A., Nobre, M. D. O., & Nizoli, L. Q. (2021) · Veterinária notícias/Veterinária Notícias · doi:10.14393/vtn-v27n1-2021-51283 · Cited by 3
PARASITAS INTESTINAIS EM CÃES DO CANIL MUNICIPAL DE CAXIAS DO SUL, RIO GRANDE DO SUL
Lusa, E. R., Pertile, J. G., Mewius, A., Silva, S. D. Á. E., França, R. T., & de Castro, L. L. D. (2022) · SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HEALTH · doi:10.15210/sah.v9i2.21625 · Cited by 3
Mordedura de cães e sua interconexão com a saúde única
Fernandes, R. R., de Sá, T. C., Pereira, K. R. D. J. D., Ribeiro, D. C., Andre, G. C. S., Belettini, S. T., Merlini, N. B., & Quessada, A. M. (2023) · Brazilian Journal of Health Review · doi:10.34119/bjhrv6n1-044 · Cited by 3
Research on the Ethology and Diet of the Stray Dog Population in the Areas Bordering the Municipality of Suceava, Romania
Danila, G., Simioniuc, V., & Duduman, M. (2023) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci10030188 · Cited by 3
“Changing human behaviour through education to encourage the proper cooking of food, which may have cultural and social significance, will remain as challenging as controlling stray and feral pet populations, improving hygiene levels, providing safe drinking water and the proper use of sanctuary facilities [22].”
Background
Echinococcus granulosus complex infection in wild boar hunters and auxiliary hunting dogs
Carbonara, M., Buono, F., Morea, A., Sgroi, G., Maurelli, M. P., Locantore, F., Trerotoli, P., Indraccolo, F., Stufano, A., Schino, V., et al. (2024) · One Health · doi:10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100908 · Cited by 3
“…well as to those owning more than five hunting dogs each, live in presence of different animal species, including dogs, further support the association between CE epidemiology and socio-demographic variables that may favor the parasite transmission, especially if scant hygiene practices occur [44].”
Background
Larvas de helmintos em áreas de recreação de creches de Cuiabá, Mato Grosso
de Almeida, A. D. B. P. F., Cândido, A. C., & Sousa, V. R. F. (2010) · Semina Ciências Agrárias · doi:10.5433/1679-0359.2010v31n2p469 · Cited by 3
“Desta forma, os proprietários de cães e gatos jovens devem iniciar o programa de vermifugação precocemente, além de cuidar com os hábitos higiênicos das crianças (MACPHERSON, 2005).”
Background
Prevention and control of bovine cysticercosis: a Delphi study
Nickele, E. P., & Busato, M. A. (2016) · Semina Ciências Agrárias · doi:10.5433/1679-0359.2016v37n6p4139 · Cited by 3
“Measures to encourage proper cooking of food, improve hygiene levels, and promote proper use of sanitary facilities may be challenging, due to the cultural and social significance of these practices (MACPHERSON, 2005).”
Background
Giardíase: importância na rotina clínica veterinária
Ferreira, A. P., & Destro, F. C. (2020) · PubVet · doi:10.31533/pubvet.v13n12a473.1-6 · Cited by 3
Prevalence of single and mixed parasitic infections of dogs in Egbeda communities, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
Ojo, G. A., Adekeye, T. A., & Awobode, H. O. (2020) · Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.4314/sokjvs.v17i4.4 · Cited by 3
Heterophyid metacercariae in free living and farmed fish of El-Max Bay, West of Alexandria, Egypt
El-Taweel, H. A., Yassine, O., Holw, S. A. A., & El-Sayad, M. H. (2014) · Parasitologists United Journal · doi:10.4103/1687-7942.149560 · Cited by 3
L’anisakidose : une zoonose au goût du jour
Just, P., Méatchi, T., Elouaret, Y., Badoual, C., & Couchon, S. (2008) · Gastroentérologie Clinique et Biologique · doi:10.1016/j.gcb.2008.01.025 · Cited by 3
Safety of ready-to-eat seafood
Herrera, J. J. R. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801916-0.00013-3 · Cited by 3
Symbiosis and Parasitism
Bogitsh, B. J., Carter, C. E., & Oeltmann, T. N. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-415915-0.00001-7 · Cited by 3
Produce Contamination by Other Wildlife
Rice, D. H. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-404611-5.00008-7 · Cited by 3
Epidemiology, diagnosis and public health importance of Trichinellosis.
Yayeh, M., Yadesa, G., Erara, M., Fantahun, S., Gebru, A., & Birhan, M. (2020) · Journal of World s Poultry Research · doi:10.36380/scil.2020.ojafr18 · Cited by 3
Occurrence of endoparasites in domestic owned cats in Dhaka city
Aurin, A., Zaman, R. F., & Khanum, H. (2020) · Journal of Bioscience and Biotechnology Discovery · doi:10.31248/jbbd2020.123 · Cited by 3
“This close contact, however, can also increase the risk of exposure to infectious diseases, as pets have been involved in the transmission of more than 60 zoonotic agents (Macpherson, 2005).”
Retrospective Seasonal Parasitological Survey on Prevalence and Epidemiological Determinants of Ectoparasitic Infestations in Dogs and Cats of Damietta, Egypt
Aboelela, E. M., Sobieh, M. A. A., Abouelhassan, E. M., Farid, D. S., & Soliman, E. S. (2022) · Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.17582/journal.aavs/2022/10.8.1854.1867 · Cited by 3
Naturally Occurring Water Pollutants
Backer, L. C., Kish, J. K., Solo‐Gabriele, H. M., & Fleming, L. E. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118148594.ch23 · Cited by 3
Risk of disease spillover from dogs to wild carnivores in Kanha Tiger Reserve, IndiaPreprint
Chaudhary, V., Rajput, N., Shrivastav, A. B., & Tonkyn, D. W. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/360271 · Cited by 3
“Dogs which form an important link of pathogen transmission between wild carnivores, humans and livestock (MacPherson, 2005) are present in villages of KTR and the disease spillover risk threat caused by these abundant unvaccinated dogs should not be underestimated.”
Background
Molecular identification of heterophyids in human stool samples from the Philippines
Salvo, P. L. M., Torriana, P. A., Kunting, A. C., Fontanilla, I. K. C., Leonardo, L., Moendeg, K. J., Cadiz, A. E.-D., Fornillos, R. J. C., Tantengco, O. A. G., & Tabios, I. K. B. (2025) · Parasitology International · doi:10.1016/j.parint.2025.103134 · Cited by 2
A Hawkes-modulated SIS epidemic model with shot-noise transmission jumps
Sabbar, Y. (2026) · The European Physical Journal Plus · doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-026-07377-2 · Cited by 2
“Empirical evidence from mobility traces, proximity sensors, and outbreak investigations indicates temporal intermittency: periods of low activity are interrupted by bursts of intense contacts induced by gatherings, abrupt policy changes, and coordinated behavioural shifts [7, 8].”
Fish and shellfish as sentinels of aquatic contamination: Global distribution and One Health implications of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia
Na, L., Qin, Z., Zhang, K., Dhakal, P., Li, J., Zhao, J., & Zhang, L. (2026) · One Health · doi:10.1016/j.onehlt.2026.101378 · Cited by 2
“These multifaceted drivers underscore that reported prevalence is not merely a reflection of parasite distribution, but is also significantly influenced by the diagnostic precision and the specific ecological context of each study [104,105].”
Zoonotic parasitic diseases in India: epidemiology, transmission dynamics, and one health challenges
Giji, A., Palani, N., Altaf, R. R. S., Mendonce, K. C., Mohan, A., Quessongo, E. M. P., & Rajadesingu, S. (2026) · Journal of Parasitic Diseases · doi:10.1007/s12639-026-01958-9 · Cited by 2
Gastrointestinal parasites of endemic and endangered free-ranging purple-faced leaf monkey (Semnopithecus vetulus) in Sri Lanka: effect of host group size and habitat type
Weerasekara, L. S., Wijesooriya, K., Ranawana, K. B., Anupama, T., & Rajapakse, J. (2021) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-021-00902-0 · Cited by 2
“Therefore, it is vital to understand potential transmissions of GIP to other animals and humans in order to minimize health risks (Macpherson 2005).”
Background
DESAFIOS NO CONTROLE DA SUPERPOPULAÇÃO E ABANDONO DE CÃES E GATOS – REVISÃO DE LITERATURA
Tovo, B. G., & Wilmsen, M. O. (2023) · Revista Foco · doi:10.54751/revistafoco.v16n7-125 · Cited by 5
RAW ATTITUDES: Socio-Cultures, Altered Landscapes, and Changing Perceptions of an Underestimated Disease
Grundy‐Warr, C., Andrews, R. H., Khuntikeo, N., & Petney, T. N. (2023) · Recent results in cancer research/Recent Results in Cancer Research · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35166-2_11 · Cited by 2
A Study on the Monitoring of Toxocara spp. in Various Children’s Play Facilities in the Republic of Korea (2016–2021)
Oh, Y.-H., Sohn, H., Choi, M., Hyun, M.-W., Hong, S., Lee, J.-S., Ryu, A., Kim, J.-H., & Shin, H.-J. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11212839 · Cited by 2
The Prevalence of Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
Abdullah, A. M., Abdullah, M. K., Rasheed, R. M., Azko, A. J., Younis, Y. I., Ahmad, H. O., & Majeed, S. (2024) · Mikrobiolohichnyi Zhurnal · doi:10.15407/microbiolj86.03.070 · Cited by 2
“Th is observation aligns with the fi ndings from previous studies conducted in other countries (Macpherson, 2005).”
Result
Spatially-implicit modelling of disease-behaviour interactions in the context of non-pharmaceutical interventions
Bauch, C. T., & Ringa, N. (2017) · Mathematical Biosciences & Engineering · doi:10.3934/mbe.2018021 · Cited by 2
Canine toxocariasis in southeast of Iran
Mirzaie, M., & Fooladi, M. (2012) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2012.05.655 · Cited by 2
“canis, which presents as febrile illness in children, symptoms, which include abdominal pain, cough and headaches, are usually mild (Macpherson, 2005; Taylor and Holland, 2001).”
Background
Waterborne zoonoses and changes in hydrologic response due to watershed development
Walker, A. M., Wilcox, B. A., & Wong, M. (2008) · WIT transactions on state-of-the-art in science and engineering · doi:10.2495/978-1-84564-091-0/13 · Cited by 2
“Several recent reviews suggest that zoonoses, transmitted from animal hosts to humans by a variety of routes of exposure, are an emerging class of disease that will affect greater numbers of people as a consequence of population growth, urbanization and climate change [12–14].”
Background
The burden of Cystic Echinococcosis in selected regions in Kenya
Odero, J., Magambo, J. K., Kutima, H. L., Ndahi, L., & Njonge, F. K. (2015) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.19423.05282 · Cited by 2
Water as a Potential Transmission Route of Infection with Tapeworms
S, O. A. A. (2015) · Air & Water Borne Diseases · doi:10.4172/2167-7719.1000e135 · Cited by 2
“Increase in population throughout the world, poor sanitary conditions, and inability to provide safe drinking water have led to increased importance of water-borne infections particularly those of zoonotic diseases [9].”
Background
Effective Cross-Border Monitoring Systems for Waterborne Microbial Pathogens
Rose, J. B., & Dreelin, E. A. (2015) · Water Intelligence Online · doi:10.2166/9781780401898 · Cited by 2
Parasitic prevalence of fresh water shrimp (Atya gabonensis) in lower Benue River, Makurdi
Okayi, R. G., Ayuba, V. O., & Akisani, C. (2015) · International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture · doi:10.5897/ijfa13.0383 · Cited by 2
A Global Problem of Toxoplasmosis
Çakır-Koç, R., & Özdemir, B. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813806-9.00015-9 · Cited by 2
Toxocara canis in puppies and their public health importance in Grenada
Schwartz, R., Bidaisee, S., & Macpherson, C. N. L. (2019) · Caribbean Medical Journal · doi:10.48107/cmj.2019.04.006 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
Ocorrência de endoparasitas gastrointestinais em cães da associação protetora animal e ambiental da cidade de Patos de Minas, MG, Brasil
Mastrantônio, E. C., Modesto, T. C., & Pereira, D. A. (2021) · Veterinária notícias/Veterinária Notícias · doi:10.14393/vtn-v27n3-2021-61319 · Cited by 2
Foodborne cestodes
Geerts, S. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-78242-332-4.00009-6 · Cited by 2
The Role of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in the Life Cycle of Toxocara spp.
de Oliveira, E. A., Merigueti, Y. F. F. B., Ferreira, I. B., Garcia, I. S., Pereira, A. S., Santos, R. D. S., Kmetiuk, L. B., dos Santos, A. P., Biondo, A. W., Giuffrida, R., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.685911 · Cited by 2
“The consumption of raw or inadequately cooked fish has been increasingly popular throughout the world (1, 2).”
Background
Parasites of Dogs
Bowman, D. D. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470344552.ch17 · Cited by 2

Authors: Macpherson, C. N. L.
Affiliations: St. George's University (GD)
Corresponding author: Macpherson, Calum N.L.
ORCID: Macpherson, Calum N.L.
Venue: International Journal for Parasitology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2005-10
Volume: 35
Issue: 11-12
Pages: 1319-1331
ISSN: 0020-7519 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.06.004
OpenAlex: W2120235087
Cited by: 431
References: 112
Citations by year: 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 2.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: International Journal for Parasitology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Parasitic infections in humans and animals
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Zoonotic diseases and public health
Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Helminth infection and control
Keywords: parasitic zoonoses, human behavior, emerging infectious diseases, foodborne zoonoses, companion animals, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, behavior change, molecular epidemiology, parasite transmission, zoonosis control, Trichinella
MeSH terms: Animals, Animals, Domestic, Behavior, Communicable Diseases, Humans, Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Plants, Zoonoses, Prevalence, Food Chain

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