Electron-induced structural changes in flax fiber reinforced PLA/PCL composites, analyzed using the rule of mixtures
Open accessAbstract
The paper presents the effect of electron treatment on the various properties of flax fibers (20 wt%; 5 mm in length) reinforced PLA/PCL (70:30) composites. To enhance the intensity of the electron-induced cross-linking reactions, triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC) as a cross-linking agent was also added (up to 3 wt%). The composites were manufactured by conventional extrusion, granulation, and injection molding techniques, and then electron irradiated at doses of up to 60 kGy. The structural changes were determined using mechanical testing (tensile strength, impact strength, dynamic mechanical analysis), gel content analysis, thermogravimetry, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The modified composites were also subjected to enzymatic biodegradation and industrial composting. An important novelty aspect of the presented research, additionally to the new material composition, is the use of the rule of mixtures in the assessment of the effect of electron treatment on the interfacial interactions of dispersed PCL in the continuous phase of PLA, in the presence of flax fibers. PCL was dispersed in the PLA phase with an average phase size of a few micrometers. Based on the rule of mixtures, it was found that without TAIC, the predominantly degraded PLA phase-initiated cross-linking of the dispersed PCL phase, contributing to the interphase adhesion enhancement reflected in improved mechanical properties. To apply this model, it was required to refer to the previously published results of analogous composites with homopolymer matrix (PLA or PCL).
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Composites of PLA/PCL exhibit improved tensile strength, modulus, and toughness compared to neat PLA/PCL blends.
“Performance-wise, studies summarized in Table 5 report that composites of PLA/PCL exhibit improved tensile strength, modulus, and toughness compared to neat PLA/PCL blends [24,25,31,32].”
From Nanocellulose-Reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review and Future Outlook for Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blend Systems (2025) · cites this paper as [24]
The Conclusions report that electron irradiation increased tensile strength and modulus in flax-fiber-reinforced PLA/PCL composites, but did not improve impact toughness. The Results and discussion report a toughness increase when the PCL content of the blend reached 30 wt%. Neither passage establishes that the fiber-reinforced composites improved all three properties compared with neat PLA/PCL blends. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn some studies, nanocellulose yielded PLA/PCL blend composites with balanced toughness and strength, improved elongation at break, and enhanced thermal behavior.
“In some studies, the use of NC has yielded PLA/PCL blend composites with balanced toughness and strength, improved elongation at break and enhanced thermal behavior [24,27,31,32]”
From Nanocellulose-Reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review and Future Outlook for Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blend Systems (2025) · cites this paper as [24]
The Results and discussion report improved impact strength from adding PCL and increased tensile strength after electron treatment in PLA/PCL composites reinforced with flax fiber. The Materials section identifies chopped flax fiber, not nanocellulose, as the reinforcement. The Results also report reduced—not improved—elongation at break after electron treatment, and the cited passages do not establish enhanced thermal behavior. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredReinforcement strategies improve interfacial adhesion, dispersion, and composite functionality in PLA/PCL-based composites.
“The literature shows that reinforcement strategies improve interfacial adhesion, dispersion, and composite functionality [24,27,31,32,33,34,89].”
From Nanocellulose-Reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review and Future Outlook for Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blend Systems (2025) · cites this paper as [24]
The Abstract and Conclusions (page numbers unavailable) report that electron treatment improved adhesion between the PLA and PCL phases and increased some mechanical properties of flax-fiber-reinforced composites. The Results and discussion describe PCL dispersion and a change in its morphology, but do not show that a reinforcement strategy improved dispersion. The paper also reports that electron treatment did not improve impact toughness, so the claim's broad statement about improved functionality needs qualification. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHigher loading of flax fiber at 20 wt.% significantly enhances mechanical properties through extrusion and injection molding.
“Meanwhile, higher loading of natural fibers, such as flax fiber, at 20 wt.%, significantly enhances mechanical properties through extrusion and injection molding, demonstrating their potential for robust packaging materials [24].”
From Nanocellulose-Reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review and Future Outlook for Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blend Systems (2025) · cites this paper as [24]
The Results and discussion report using 20 wt% flax fiber, and Processing describes extrusion followed by injection molding. But the reported tensile-strength increase is associated with electron irradiation and the crosslinking agent, not with higher flax-fiber loading; the paper does not establish that 20 wt% flax significantly enhances mechanical properties through those processing steps. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPluronic improves tensile strength at optimal blend ratios.
“Pluronic, incorporated at 2.5 to 7.5 parts per hundred and processed through melt blending, improves tensile strength at optimal blend ratios, targeting packaging applications [24].”
From Nanocellulose-Reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review and Future Outlook for Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blend Systems (2025) · cites this paper as [24]
The Materials section (2.1; page unavailable) lists PLA, PCL, flax fiber and TAIC, but not Pluronic. The Results and discussion section (3; page unavailable) selects a PLA/PCL ratio for its impact strength, not a Pluronic ratio for tensile strength. Searches for Pluronic and the stated 2.5–7.5 parts-per-hundred range found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)
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Ngwenya, M., Gumede, T. P., Pérez Camargo, R. A., & Motloung, B. (2025) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma18225172 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, higher loading of natural fibers, such as flax fiber, at 20 wt.%, significantly enhances mechanical properties through extrusion and injection molding, demonstrating their potential for robust packaging materials [24].”
Influential
- Authors
- Rytlewski, P., Gohs, U., Stepczyńska, M., Malinowski, R., Karasiewicz, T., & Moraczewski, K.
- Affiliations
- Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (PL)
- Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden – University of Applied Sciences (DE)
- Łukasiewicz Research Network - Institute of Polymer Materials (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Rytlewski, Piotr
- ORCID
- Venue
- Industrial Crops and Products
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-11
- Volume
- 188
- Pages
- 115587
- ISSN
- 0926-6690 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4296220064
- Cited by
- 27
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 9
- FWCI
- 1.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Industrial Crops and Products (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › biodegradable polymer synthesis and properties
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Fiber-reinforced polymer composites
- Keywords
- electron irradiation, flax fiber composites, polylactic acid, polycaprolactone, triallyl isocyanurate, crosslinking, rule of mixtures, interfacial adhesion, mechanical properties, enzymatic degradation, industrial composting, gel content, polymer blends
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