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Cited by 29Environmental Impact and SustainabilitySustainability and Ecological Systems AnalysisSustainable Development and Environmental Policy

Material footprint and import dependency in EU27: Past trends and future challenges

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Distefano, T., Lodi, L., Biggeri, M.·2024·Journal of Cleaner Production
DOI 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143384
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Abstract

This study examines the material footprint and import dependency of the European Union (EU27) members, focusing on four key material categories: biomass, fossil fuels , metal ores, and non-metals. The feasibility and efficacy of EU strategies concerning the transition to a circular economy and the reduction of raw material extractions is assessed, with a particular focus on the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRM Act). Using Structural Decomposition Analysis (SDA) between 2012 and 2020, we identify the impacts of macroeconomic drivers such as technological progress, structural changes, and final consumption patterns on material use. Our analysis indicates a gradual shift towards the relative decoupling of GDP from material use in the EU27, particularly for non-metals and fossil fuels . Additionally, the region shows a decreasing dependency on non-EU countries, as evidenced by the reduction in net trade over recent years. However, the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario projects material usage and import reliance up to 2030, assessing the EU27's ability to meet the CRM targets. The results reveal significant import dependencies from the rest of the world, particularly for fossil fuels (90.9%) and metal ores (86.2%), where nearly all EU27 countries exceed the 65% import dependency threshold. While biomass and non-metals show more promise in terms of self-sufficiency, challenges remain. Additionally, the potential for substitutability across raw materials is explored, highlighting the complexities of transitioning to alternative resources such as biomass. Our findings emphasize the necessity for integrated policy interventions at the EU level, combining supply and demand measures, technological advancements, and behavioral changes to achieve relative dematerialization. The study also stresses the importance of international cooperation to secure sustainable raw material supplies . Without a multifaceted approach, the EU27 risks failing to meet future environmental and sustainability goals, particularly in light of recent geopolitical developments and the urgent need to transition to renewable energy sources .

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  • The EU's consumption of used cooking oil (UCO) has significantly increased its reliance on imports, primarily from Asia, raising concerns about feedstock costs and traceability.

    “This global dynamic is also reflected in feedstock markets, where policy incentives in one region can drive global trade; for example, the EU's consumption of used cooking oil (UCO) has significantly increased its reliance on imports, primarily from Asia, raising concerns about feedstock costs and traceability [10,260,261].”

    From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [10]

  • Over the past two decades, the EU's sourcing pattern has shifted towards greater import dependency.

    “Over the past two decades, the EU's sourcing pattern has shifted towards greater import dependency [10].”

    From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [10]

  • The absence of a universal policy framework governing e-Fuel sustainability, coupled with highly variable national vehicle taxation regimes and fossil fuel subsidies, introduces financial uncertainty and deters long-term investment.

    “However, the absence of a universal policy framework governing e-Fuel sustainability, coupled with highly variable national vehicle taxation regimes and fossil fuel subsidies, introduces financial uncertainty and deters long-term investment [3,10].”

    From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [10]

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Authors
Distefano, T., Lodi, L., & Biggeri, M.
Affiliations
  • Future Cities Catapult (United Kingdom) (GB)
  • Research for Action (US)
Corresponding author
Lodi, L.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Cleaner Production
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2024-09
Volume
472
Pages
143384
ISSN
0959-6526 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143384
OpenAlex
W4401732363
Cited by
29
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 1
FWCI
3.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Cleaner Production (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Florence Research (University of Florence) (submittedVersion)
Funders
HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme (101094551)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Sustainability and Ecological Systems Analysis
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Sustainable Development and Environmental Policy
Keywords
material footprint, import dependence, critical raw materials, Critical Raw Materials Act, circular economy, raw material self-sufficiency, fossil fuels, metal ores, nonmetals, biomass, raw material substitution, structural decomposition analysis, business-as-usual scenario

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