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Pilot-scale capacitive deionization for water softening: Performance, energy consumption, and ion selectivity
Open accessAbstract
Capacitive deionization (CDI) has emerged as an efficient process for hardness control than traditional water-softening technologies. However, few systematic studies have been conducted on water softening using pilot-scale CDI systems. For industrial applications, it is essential to investigate deionization performance, energy consumption, and selectivity for divalent cations through pilot-scale studies. In this study, we examined the deionization performance and energy consumption of a pilot-scale CDI process for effective water softening. The key operational variables analyzed were the applied voltage (200–300 V (i.e., 1.0–1.5 V per pair)), feed concentration (550–1250 mg/L), recovery ratio (50–80 %), flow rate (3–5 L/min), and adsorption/desorption time (80–180 s). Within this range, a high voltage, low feed concentration, low recovery ratio, high flow rate, and long adsorption/desorption times are advantageous for the total dissolved solids (TDS) removal ratio. In terms of energy efficiency, expressed as TDS removal per unit energy consumption, a low voltage, low feed concentration, low recovery ratio, fast flow rate, and long adsorption/desorption time are beneficial. Additionally, we investigated the selective removal of Ca 2+ over Na + under various operating conditions, as well as its impact on enhancing energy efficiency. The pilot CDI system achieved a Ca/Na selectivity coefficient of approximately 2.4 and it was analyzed to achieve up to 45 % energy-saving efficien…
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“with ion selectivity enhanced under conditions such as low feed concentrations, moderate flow rates, and extended adsorption/desorption times.”
From Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies (2025) · cites this paper as [120]
In the citing paper
“These findings demonstrate the feasibility of CDI technology for lithium recovery when operational parameters are optimized [120].”
From Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies (2025) · cites this paper as [120]
In the citing paper
“Yoon et al. further emphasized the system's preferential removal of lithium ions over sodium ions”
From Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies (2025) · cites this paper as [120]
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Yoon, H., Jeon, S., Min, T., Lee, C. K., & Lee, G.
- Affiliations
- Korea Institute of Machinery & Materials (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Yoon, Hongsik
- Venue
- Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-12
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 114259
- ISSN
- 2213-2929 (ISSN-L)
- 2213-3437
- OpenAlex
- W4402898744
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of environmental chemical engineering (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KN031E)
- Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning
- Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (20213030040590, 20223030040060)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Filtration and Separation › Membrane-based Ion Separation Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Membrane Separation Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Filtration and Separation › Freezing and Crystallization Processes
- Keywords
- capacitive deionization, water softening, divalent cation selectivity, energy efficiency, total dissolved solids removal, operating conditions optimization, recovery ratio
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