The DOI matches its Crossref record; 13 of the 14 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 35 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture
Open accessAbstract
Baijiu (白酒) is a traditional fermented alcoholic drink originating in China, which is typically obtained by natural fermentation. It has a high reputation and constitutes an important part of Chinese dietary profile. The production of baijiu involves five major steps, materials preparation, daqu (大曲) making, alcoholic fermentation, distillation, and aging. There is a range of baijiu with different flavors and corresponding names. Baijiu can be categorized according to the production techniques (solid state and semi-solid state), types of starter [daqu, xiaoqu (小曲), and fuqu (麸曲)] and product flavor (strong, light, sauce, etc.). different types of baijiu have their home microbiota and flavor because of their distinct production techniques. In this review, we discuss the critical steps and the microorganisms involved in the production of different types of baijiu. Although baijiu contains alcohol, it has been proven that it plays a significant role in the heath and quality of peoples' lives.
Overview
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TL;DR
Baijiu is a traditional Chinese distilled liquor produced by natural fermentation, with production exceeding 12 million metric tons annually and average per-capita consumption of 9.43 L/y in 2013. This review describes baijiu history, classification by manufacturing technique, starter, and flavor, and the key production steps and microorganisms for major types.
Key findings
- Baijiu can be classified by production technique (solid-state, semi-solid-state, liquid-state), starter type (daqu, xiaoqu, fuqu), and flavor; the three major flavor types—sauce, strong, and light—comprise approximately 60% to 70% of baijiu in China.
- Production involves five major steps: materials preparation, daqu making, alcoholic fermentation, distillation, and aging; aging generally exceeds 3 years for sauce-flavor liquor and at least 1 year for strong- and light-flavor liquors.
- Different starters and fermentation conditions select distinct microbiota: daqu contains bacteria, yeast, filamentous fungi, and actinomycetes; xiaoqu contains few microorganisms including Rhizopus, Mucor, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts; fuqu contains only pure Aspergillus culture.
- High-temperature stacking fermentation for sauce-flavor baijiu shifted microbial composition from 53.76% bacteria and 46.24% yeasts before stacking to 5.61% bacteria and 94.39% yeasts after stacking; sauce-flavor baijiu’s major aroma compound tetramethyl pyrazine is reported at 3,000–5,000 mg/L.
Methods
- Narrative review of baijiu history, classification, manufacture, and health aspects, synthesizing prior literature and technical descriptions rather than presenting new experimental data.
- Describes representative production processes for light-flavor (fen-jiu), sauce-flavor (moutai-jiu), and strong-flavor (luzhoulaojiao-jiu) baijiu, including raw materials, daqu types, fermentation vessels, fermentation times, distillation, and aging.
- Summarizes reported microorganisms and aroma compounds associated with different baijiu types, citing prior culture-dependent and culture-independent studies.
Limitations
- The paper states that characterization of different baijiu types is still vague and that more strict and accurate standards are required to distinguish baijiu based on flavor-enriching compounds.
- The paper states that knowledge of the ecology and function of relevant microorganisms for each baijiu type is a prerequisite to standardize production.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis; health-related claims are based on cited in vitro, clinical, and traditional sources rather than new primary data.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 35 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Use of high-temperature stacking fermentation (堆积发酵): This is the key process in the production of sauce-flavor baijiu.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.2. Manufacture of sauce-flavor baijiu
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The dominant microorganisms in the mud pit are primarily bacteria, including Clostridium diolis, Lactobacillus acetotolerans, and Bacillus subtilis [34].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.3. Manufacture of strong-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34] Liu, 2013, Spatial heterogeneity of prokaryotic microorganism communities in Luzhou-flavour liquor pit mud
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
In the paper
“According to the starters used, three different types of baijiu can be distinguished [5], which are as follows:”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.2. Fermentation starters
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Fan, 2012, Review of functional factors and quality safety factors of baijiu (Chinese liquor), Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“These nonalcoholic components might participate in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases [7].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Huang, 2013, Analysis on the relationship between Chinese liquor and health, Liquor Making
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, each type of baijiu has its own specific and critical techniques that result in the different flavors of baijiu.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.3. Manufacture of strong-flavor baijiu
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Of these, P. pentosaceus, L. plantarum, S. cerevisiae, P. kudriavzevii, and W. anomalus are active throughout the alcoholic fermentation process [28].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.1. The production process of light-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [28] Li, 2011, Bacterial and fungal diversity in the traditional Chinese liquor fermentation process, Int J Food Microbiol source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Previous studies have shown that Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Saccharomyces, Candida, and filamentous fungi, including Mucor, Absidia, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, are present in strong-flavor daqu [32,33].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.3. Manufacture of strong-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [32] Zhao, 2012, Research advance about microbes in Chinese liquor production, China Brew
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [33] Cheng, 2014, Research progress on brewing microbes in the production process of Luzhou-flavour liquor, China Brew
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
In the paper
“The microorganisms involved in this process are S. cerevisiae, Candida intermedia, Saccharomyces italicus, and Saccharomyces talluri [30].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.2. Manufacture of sauce-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Zhuang, 2003, Isolation and identification of yeasts during high-temperature stacking fermentation of sauce-flavour baijiu, Liquor Making
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, due to a few types of microorganism involved, baijiu produced using xiaoqu contains less flavor than that produced using daqu.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.2. Fermentation starters
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Only very few types of microorganism are present in xiaoqu, including Rhizopus, Mucor, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts.
In the paper
“Aging plays an essential role in the flavor of liquors, since a variety of aromatic compounds (mainly acids and esters) are balanced during this process through physical changes mainly van der Waals interaction combined with chemical reactions such as reductioneoxidation, esterification, hydrolysis, condensation, decomposition, and the Maillard reaction [24].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.1. The production process of light-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Xiong, 2000, Research on the ageing process of Chinese liquor, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
- It may state two separate claims as one. 20
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Daqu is a type of grain, qu (曲), which is made from raw wheat, barley, and/or peas [11].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.2. Fermentation starters
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [11] Zheng, 2011, Daqu—a traditional Chinese liquor fermentation starter, J Inst Brew source
The Introduction (p. 2) directly calls Daqu a type of grain Qu made from raw wheat, barley and/or pea. The discussion of production conditions (p. 8) also confirms that its ingredients are raw (uncooked). (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
In the paper
“Moreover, some clinical data show that moderate consumption of baijiu may speed up blood circulation and improve the functioning of cardiovascular and circulatory systems [7].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 4. Baijiu and health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Huang, 2013, Analysis on the relationship between Chinese liquor and health, Liquor Making
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Chinese people, baijiu is not only a food product but also a culture heritage.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 5. Conclusion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Strong-flavor baijiu such as luzhoulaojiao-jiu and wuliangyejiu, which have the characteristics of fragrant flavor, soft mouthfeel, and endless aftertaste.The representative aroma compounds are predominantly ethyl hexanoate in harmonious balance with ethyl lactate, ethyl acetate, and ethyl butanoate [17].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.3. Flavor of baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] Xiong, 2005, Research on three flavour type liquors in China. (1) Introduction to Luzhou-flavour liquor, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Ben-Cao-Gang-Mu (本草纲目, Chinese Materia Medica), compiled by Li Shi-Zhen (李时珍) in 1597, indicates that solid-state fermentation (SSF) combined with distillation was invented during the era of the Yuan dynasty [5].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Fan, 2012, Review of functional factors and quality safety factors of baijiu (Chinese liquor), Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“It could improve serum lipid profiles in young people and decrease platelet aggregation and endothelial adhesion molecules to protect against the risk of cardiovascular diseases [5].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Fan, 2012, Review of functional factors and quality safety factors of baijiu (Chinese liquor), Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The baijiu industry is a traditional and unique industry that plays a very important role in the construction and development of the Chinese economy.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 5. Conclusion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, SSF is regarded as a method that could produce the maximal types of baijiu, with each product having different flavor and characteristics.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.1.1. SSF baijiu (固态发酵白酒)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Baijiu, a special series of distilled liquors, was normally made from sorghum or a mixture of barley, corn, rice, wheat, and sorghum, containing abundant volatile components such as esters and organic acids [6].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] Kang, 1991, Handbook of liquor industry
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“An historical record mentions that the earliest distillation tools (distillation pan) appeared during the era of the Song dynasty [4].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4] Xiao, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Xiao et al [4] showed that 53.76% of bacteria and 46.24% of yeasts were present before hightemperature stacking fermentation, while 5.61% of bacteria and 94.39% of yeasts developed after high-temperature stacking fermentation [4].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.2. Manufacture of sauce-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4] Xiao, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Light-flavor baijiu (清香型白酒) such as fen-jiu (汾酒) and erguotou-jiu, which gives a pure and mild flavor, mellow sweetness and refreshing aftertaste.The major aroma compounds are ethyl acetate in balance with considerable levels of ethyl lactate [18].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.3. Flavor of baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Xiong, 2005, Research on three flavor type liquor in China. (3) Fen flavor liquor—Xinghuacun, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, moderate intake of baijiu is healthy and safe, although it is critical to control high intake.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 4. Baijiu and health
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Changes in each step will alter the microbial profiles, which consequently alters the microbial metabolites as well.As a result, baijiu with different flavors could be produced.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.3. Manufacture of strong-flavor baijiu
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This type of baijiu is typically produced from grains such as sorghum, wheat, rice, glutinous rice, and maize by a complex SSF process, which consists of: (1) material preparation; (2) daqu making; (3) SSF; (4) solid-state distillation; and (5) aging [8].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.1.1. SSF baijiu (固态发酵白酒)
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Barrios-González, 2012, Solid-state fermentation: physiology of solid medium, its molecular basis and applications, Proc Biochem source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Fuqu is different from the other two starters and is made from bran and contains only pure culture of Aspergillus [14,15].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.2. Fermentation starters
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [14] Yin, 2010, Production of bran koji by mixture of cooked and uncooked bran, Res Rep
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Zhong, 2011, Review on prospects of bran starter-making technology, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although baijiu contains alcohol, it has been proven that it plays a significant role in the heath and quality of peoples' lives.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > Abstract
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Sauce-flavor baijiu (酱香型白酒), such as moutai-jiu (茅台酒) and lang-jiu (郎酒), which provides a flavor resembling soy sauce, full-body and a long-lasting aroma.The major representative aroma compounds are phenolic compounds, primarily tetramethyl pyrazine (3,000e5,000 mg/L) and syringic acid, along with small quantities of amino acids, acids, and esters [16].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.3. Flavor of baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Xiong, 2005, Research on three flavour type liquors in China. (2) Introduction to Maotai-flavour liquor, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Due to this, high-temperature stacking fermentation is introduced directly after adding daqu to sorghum.The principle of this technique is rather simple, that is, to stack the fermented material for a few days (2e4 days) before alcoholic fermentation with the purpose of increasing the number of microorganisms, particularly yeasts, and balancing the chemical components [29].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.2. Manufacture of sauce-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Tang, 2006, Application of the technique of high temperature stacking fementation in the production of Luzhou-flavor Shuang's gou daqu liquor, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It has been reported that moderate consumption of baijiu could reduce uric acid concentration in serum and the risk of Alzheimer's disease [3].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Fan, 2014, Is drinking harmful or beneficial to consumers’ health?, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although there are more than 10,000 factories producing baijiu using their own techniques, the principle of baijiu production remains the same [20].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3. Manufacture of baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] Hu, 2011, Real estate liquor outlet, Wine World
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Baijiu can be categorized according to the production techniques (solid state and semi-solid state), types of starter [daqu, xiaoqu (小曲), and fuqu (麸曲)] and product flavor (strong, light, sauce, etc.).”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Fan, 2012, Review of functional factors and quality safety factors of baijiu (Chinese liquor), Liquor-making Sci Technol
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Yang et al studied health factors in relation to baijiu by using an in vitro model and found that pyrazine compounds (primarily tetramethyl pyrazine) are related to antioxidant activities, immunity enhancement, and reduction of triglycerides [36].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 4. Baijiu and health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Yang, 2010, Research on health factor in liquor & breeding of health factor-producing bacteria and its application in liquor production. (I) Research on health factors in Chinese liquor, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It also has been proven through clinical studies that moderate consumption of baijiu every day may play a significant role in the digestion of food by dissolving nutrients and stimulating the digestive system; moreover, it decreases the formation of blood clots and in turn may prevent arteriosclerosis [37].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 4. Baijiu and health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Cui, 2008, Nutrition component of Chinese liquor and its benefit to human health, Liquor Making
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“different types of baijiu have their home microbiota and flavor because of their distinct production techniques.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This technique results in fermented materials containing approximately 60% water [8].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 2.1.1. SSF baijiu (固态发酵白酒)
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Barrios-González, 2012, Solid-state fermentation: physiology of solid medium, its molecular basis and applications, Proc Biochem source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“It has been shown that a lower steam flow rate may not provide the thermal condition for the complete evaporation of ethanol, while a higher steam flow rate may cause the fermented grains to stick together and increase the diffusion resistance [23].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.1. The production process of light-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] Li, 2011, Experimental study on the distillation process of Chinese strong-fragrance type liquor, J Chem Eng Chin Univ
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, knowledge regarding the ecology and function of the relevant microorganisms for each type of baijiu is a prerequisite to standardize baijiu production.”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 5. Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In general, the aging time for sauce-flavor liquor is more than 3 years, while at least 1 year is required for strong-and light-flavor liquors [25].”
§ Baijiu (白酒), Chinese liquor: History, classification and manufacture > 3.1. The production process of light-flavor baijiu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] Zhang, 2003, Discussion on the compounds changes in the storage of light-flavor liquors, Liquor-making Sci Technol
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The three major flavor types (sauce, strong, light) comprise approximately 60% to 70% of baijiu in China.
“The characteristics of these three flavor types are very typical and representative, and they comprise approximately 60% to 70% of baijiu in China.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The production techniques for the three major flavor types of baijiu are standardized and stereotyped.
“The production techniques for these three types of baijiu are standardized and stereotyped.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Only very few types of microorganism are present in xiaoqu, including Rhizopus, Mucor, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts.
“Unlike daqu, only very a few types of microorganism are present in xiaoqu, including Rhizopus, Mucor, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Baijiu contains various micronutrients.
“However, people neglect that baijiu also contains various micronutrients.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The pit contributes to the flavor of baijiu.
“Experience has shown that the pit not only provides the place for fermentation but also contributes to the flavor of baijiu.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Production-technique classification omits liquid-state fermentation
MinorThe abstract names only solid-state and semi-solid-state techniques as production-technique categories, while the classification section identifies a liquid-state fermented baijiu category.
“Baijiu can be categorized according to the production techniques (solid state and semi-solid state)”
“Liquid-state fermented baijiu (液态发酵白酒)”
Baijiu manufacture predates the stated earliest distillation tools
MinorThe paper defines baijiu as a distilled liquor and says its manufacture began before the 2nd century BCE, but places the earliest distillation tools in the later Song dynasty.
“The manufacture of baijiu began at least before the 2 nd century BCE [4].”
“An historical record mentions that the earliest distillation tools (distillation pan) appeared during the era of the Song dynasty [4].”
Fusel-oil comparison reverses the reported concentrations
MinorThe text says 7.17 mg/100 mL is higher than 28.89 mg/mL. In the same units, the light-flavor value is 2,889 mg/100 mL, so it is much higher, not lower.
“in this type of baijiu (7.17 mg/100 mL) is higher than that in light-flavor baijiu”
“light-flavor baijiu (清 香型白酒, 28.89 mg/mL)”
Citations
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“Chinese liquors labelled with false information not only harm the interests of consumers, but also damage producers’ interests [4].”
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Composition and activity of antifungal lipopeptides produced by Bacillus spp. in daqu fermentation
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Metal ions regulated Ag NPRs etching colorimetric sensor array for discrimination of Chinese Baijiu
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East meets west in alcoholic beverages: Flavor comparison, microbial metabolism and health effects
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Traditional Sorghum and Millet Food and Beverage Products and Their Technologies
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Manufactural impact of the solid-state saccharification process in rice-flavor baijiu production
Yin, X., Yoshizaki, Y., Ikenaga, M., Han, X., Okutsu, K., Futagami, T., Tamaki, H., & Takamine, K. T. (2019) · Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering · doi:10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.09.017 · Cited by 41
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“And due to its distinctive flavor, taste, and production technology, Baijiu can be easily differentiated from other liquors (Zheng and Han 2016).”
BackgroundLiu, C., Du, Y., Zheng, J., Qiao, Z., Luo, H., & Zou, W. (2022) · Journal of Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2022.08.017 · Cited by 40
Systematic Review of Actinomycetes in the Baijiu Fermentation Microbiome
Chen, C., Yang, H., Liu, J., Luo, H., & Zou, W. (2022) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11223551 · Cited by 38
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“However, during the production of Daqu Baijiu, grain saccharification and fermentation are carried out simultaneously in the fermentation tank (Zheng and Han 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWine, beer and Chinese Baijiu in relation to cardiovascular health: the impact of moderate drinking
Kang, Q., Sun, J., Wang, B., & Sun, B. (2022) · Food Science and Human Wellness · doi:10.1016/j.fshw.2022.07.013 · Cited by 37
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“The key flavor-active compounds of strong-flavor baijiu are acetic, lactic, butyric, and caproic acids and their corresponding ethyl esters (8).”
BackgroundGC-IMS and GC/Q-TOFMS analysis of Maotai-flavor baijiu at different aging times
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“Daqu are saccharifying fermentation agents for Baijiu brewing, and are also an important raw material due to their level of use, ranging from 10% in light-flavor Baijiu brewing, up to 100% in sauce-flavor Baijiu.”
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“Chinese liquor (Baijiu) is one of the oldest solid-state fermented, distilled spirits [1].”
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Distribution and Quantification of Lactic Acid Enantiomers in Baijiu
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“long‐lasting fragrance, which is widely loved by consumers [6].”
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Molecular mechanism of the role of Mare Nectaris in the Feng-Flavor Baijiu aging
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Identification and Antioxidant Activity of a Novel Peptide from Baijiu
Huo, J., Luo, X., Huang, M., Wu, J., Zhang, J., Liu, X., Li, H., & Sun, X. (2019) · International Journal of Peptide Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.1007/s10989-019-09926-z · Cited by 29
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“This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 31972975) and National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2018YFC1604101).”
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“It not only plays a vital role in China’s economic and social development but is also an important part of China’s food industry (Xu et al., 2010; Zheng and Han, 2016).”
BackgroundNiu, Y., Zhao, W., Xiao, Z., Zhu, J., Xiong, W., & Chen, F. (2022) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.12281 · Cited by 29
Sweetness science of Baijiu: Unraveling flavor compounds, perception and analytical techniques
Chen, P., Feng, X., Zhu, Y., Wu, J., Li, H., Jiang, S., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Zheng, J., Sun, J., et al. (2023) · Food Chemistry Advances · doi:10.1016/j.focha.2023.100463 · Cited by 29
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“For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/2/1/43/4823048 by guest on 26 July 2018 phoenix), Te, Chi, Laobaigan, and Fuyu aroma types (Yu, 2009; Zheng and Han, 2016).”
MethodGenome-scale metabolic reconstruction and analysis for Clostridium kluyveri
Zou, W., Ye, G., Zhang, J., Zhao, C., Zhao, X., & Zhang, K. (2018) · Genome · doi:10.1139/gen-2017-0177 · Cited by 28
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Silage Fermentation on Sweet Sorghum Whole Plant for Fen-Flavor Baijiu
Li, H., Han, X., Liu, H., Hao, J., Jiang, W., & Li, S. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10071477 · Cited by 27
“After thousands of years of historical evolution, three dominating varieties with distinctive flavor profiles have gradually formed, being mild-flavor, strong-flavor, and sauce-flavor, which are represented by Fen-flavor, Luzhou-flavor, and Maotai-flavor, respectively [1,2].”
BackgroundHong, L., Fu, G., Liu, T., Chen, Y., Wu, S., Cai, W., Xie, Z., & Wan, Y. (2021) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101411 · Cited by 27
Zheng, J., He, Z., Yang, K., Liu, Z., Zhao, D., & Qian, M. C. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27041318 · Cited by 27
“Meanwhile, esters, alcohols, and acids are the main compounds in most Chinese baijiu, especially the strong aroma type baijiu [2,3].”
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Analyzing bacterial community in pit mud of Yibin Baijiu in China using high throughput sequencing
Chen, L., Li, Y., Jin, L., He, L., Ao, X., Liu, S., Yang, Y., Liu, A., Chen, S., & Zou, L. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.9122 · Cited by 26
A novel acid-sensitive quantum dot sensor array for the identification of Chinese baijiu
Li, J., Shui, Z., Dong, L., Lian, S., Zhao, D., Luo, H., Ma, Y., Hou, C., & Huo, D. (2020) · Analytical Methods · doi:10.1039/d0ay01454k · Cited by 26
Zhou, W., Zuomin, L., Wu, Z., Suyama, T., & Zhang, W. (2021) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.11105 · Cited by 26
Dai, H., Jia, J., Fan, Y., Chen, H., Wang, S., Shen, C., Li, A., Lu, L., Zhou, C., Fu, H., et al. (2021) · Spectrochimica Acta Part A Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy · doi:10.1016/j.saa.2021.119513 · Cited by 26
Mao, F., Huang, J., Zhou, R., Qin, H., Zhang, S., Cai, X., & Qiu, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.939904 · Cited by 26
“Nongxiang Baijiu (NXBJ) is one of the four famous distilled spirits in China, which enjoys a good reputation because of its unique fermentation process, good taste, and typical flavor characteristics (Zheng and Han, 2016).”
BackgroundWhether the Research on Ethanol–Water Microstructure in Traditional Baijiu Should Be Strengthened?
Qin, D., Shen, Y., Yang, S., Zhang, G., Wang, D., Li, H., & Sun, J. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27238290 · Cited by 26
Liu, H., Tan, G., Chen, Q., Dong, W., Chen, P., Cai, K., Hu, Y., Zhang, W., Peng, N., Liang, Y., et al. (2021) · BMC Microbiology · doi:10.1186/s12866-021-02334-8 · Cited by 25
“Because of the fragrant flavor, soft mouthfeel, and long-lasting aftertaste in Chinese strong-flavor baijiu (CSFB) [1], it is very popular among consumers, and its production is the highest in Open Access”
BackgroundShen, S., Liu, J., Luo, R., Zhang, J., Zhao, D., Xue, X., Zheng, J., Qiao, Z., Zhang, Q., Feng, Z., et al. (2022) · Fermentation · doi:10.3390/fermentation8120671 · Cited by 25
“The long-term experience of production showed that the fermentation of traditional Chinese Baijiu was semi-controllable and empirical [1].”
BackgroundJiang, Y., Sun, J., Chandrapala, J., Majzoobi, M., Brennan, C. S., Zeng, X., & Sun, B. (2024) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114032 · Cited by 25
Huang, Q., Liu, Y., Tian, L., Xiong, F., He, Z., Zhao, Y., Xiang, S., Qiu, X., Yu, J., & Guan, T. (2024) · Food Chemistry X · doi:10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101667 · Cited by 24
“These auxiliary materials can provide excellent conditions for adhesion and micro ‑ oxygen environments that promote the growth and reproduction of microorganisms during the Baijiu brewing process (Zheng & Han, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialSolid-State Fermentation for Food Applications
Rosales, E., Pazos, M. M., & Sanromán, M. Á. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-63990-5.00015-3 · Cited by 28
Xu, X., Waters, D. L., BLANCHARD, C. L., & Tan, S. H. (2021) · Journal of Cereal Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2021.103160 · Cited by 24
Chen, S., Lu, J., Qian, M. C., He, H., Li, A., Zhang, J., Shen, X., Gao, J., & Xu, Y. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10112888 · Cited by 24
Ali, A., Wu, Y., Li, W., Chen, X., Patil, P. J., Han, M., Shah, H. A., Zhao, L., & Li, X. (2024) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2024.104885 · Cited by 23
Baijiu: Chemical compositions, biological functions, and endogenous metabolic profiles
Gao, Y., Wang, H., Xiong, A., Liu, L., Tong, R., Pei, W., Li, Y., Wu, X., & Wang, Z. (2025) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2025.116895 · Cited by 23
Sesame flavour baijiu: a review
Zhang, W., Li, J., Rao, Z., Si, G., Zhang, X., Gao, C., Ye, M., & Ping, Z. (2020) · Journal of the Institute of Brewing · doi:10.1002/jib.614 · Cited by 23
Bioremediation of degraded pit mud by indigenous microbes for Baijiu production
Liu, M., Liu, C.-Y., Tian, X., Feng, J., Guo, X., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., & Tang, Y.-M. (2022) · Food Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.fm.2022.104096 · Cited by 23
Guan, Q., Meng, L.-J., Mei, Z., Liu, Q., Chai, L., Zhong, X.-Z., Zheng, L., Liu, G., Wang, S., Shen, C., et al. (2022) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11233916 · Cited by 23
Wang, X., Cui, W., Guo, W., Sun, B., Huang, M., Li, J., Li, H., & Meng, N. (2023) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.13278 · Cited by 23
A comprehensive review of quantified flavour components in Chinese baijiu
Xue, F., Zhou, J., & Yang, L. (2024) · International Food Research Journal · doi:10.47836/ifrj.31.2.02 · Cited by 22
“Remarkably intricate in its craft, baijiu production traverses a complex process encompassing cooking, saccharification, fermentation, distillation, storage, and blending, as detailed by scholars such as Zheng and Han (2016), Jia et al .”
BackgroundLi, W., Han, M., Zhang, H., Zhang, Q., Lang, Y., Hu, S., Li, X., & Sun, B. (2024) · International Journal of Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1111/ijfs.17470 · Cited by 22
Huang, H., Chen, Y., Hou, Y., Hong, J., Chen, H., Zhao, D., Wu, J., Li, J., Sun, J., Sun, X., et al. (2024) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods13193034 · Cited by 22
“Known for its complex brewing techniques and unique flavor, Baijiu is collectively known as one of the six world‑renowned distilled liquors, along with whiskey, brandy, vodka, gin and rum [1].”
BackgroundLi, X., Du, C., Zhao, Y., Li, J., Hu, Y., Dong, W., Peng, N., & Zhao, S. (2024) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2024.115224 · Cited by 22
Impact of solid‐state saccharification on the flavor of rice‐flavor baijiu
Zhao, Z., Sugimachi, M., Yoshizaki, Y., Yin, X., Han, X., Okutsu, K., Futagami, T., Tamaki, H., & Takamine, K. T. (2021) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.15935 · Cited by 22
Physicochemical and molecular transformation of novel functional peptides from Baijiu
Jia, W., Du, A., Dong, X., Fan, Z., Zhang, D., Wang, R., & Shi, L. S. (2021) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131894 · Cited by 22
Metadata
- Authors
- Zheng, X.-W., & Han, B.-Z.
- Affiliations
- China Agricultural University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Han, Bei-Zhong
- ORCID
- Han, Bei-Zhong
- Venue
- Journal of Ethnic Foods
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 19-25
- ISSN
- 2352-6181 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2301066249
- Semantic Scholar
- 3f3c33f84b8bc998b762444394f5b597eb53ec17
- Cited by
- 439
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 27.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Ethnic Foods (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- baijiu 3C project of China Alcoholic Drinks Association
- China baijiu Technology Innovation Strategic Alliance project
- COFCO Basic Research Project (2015-C2-F009)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Fermentation and Sensory Analysis
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Quality and Safety Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Keywords
- baijiu, Daqu, Xiaoqu, solid-state fermentation, semi-solid-state fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, distillation, aging materials, health effects of alcohol
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