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Cited by 19Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing TechnologiesProteins in Food Systems3D Printing in Biomedical Research

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Developing hydrophobic-hydrophilic protein structures by 3D food printing of sorghum and soy protein gels

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Barekat, Sorour, Ubeyitogullari, Ali·2025·Journal of Food Engineering
DOI 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2025.112640
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Abstract

The goal of this study was to introduce the simultaneous use of hydrophobic-hydrophilic proteins bioinks for 3D food printing. Sorghum protein gel (SPG) at 25% w/w and soy protein isolate gel (SPIG) at 11% w/w were loaded into separate extruders. The effects of the first printed layer (SPG or SPIG), printing speed (10, 20 mm/s), and nozzle size (0.52, 0.64, 0.72 mm) on printability were evaluated. The textural properties, rheological characteristics, microstructure, crystallinities, and functional groups of the proteins were analyzed. Printing sorghum and soy proteins together helped balance essential amino acids, where lysine (94.7%) and histidine (48.0%) levels were improved in the 3D-printed sorghum protein formulation. The best printability and shape accuracy (˃95% match with the digital design) were achieved using SPG as the first layer, a 0.64 mm nozzle for SPG, a 0.52 mm nozzle for SPIG, and a printing speed of 10 mm/s. SEM images showed porous gel networks in the 3D-printed samples under optimized conditions. Chemical analysis indicated protein structure changes after gelation, and X-ray diffraction confirmed an amorphous structure in all samples. In conclusion, the findings emphasize the crucial role of process parameters in achieving the desired printability and structural integrity of SPG-SPIG. The novelty of this study lies in introducing a new bioink formulation with a balanced amino acid profile for food 3D printing, expanding the use of sorghum proteins. • This study explored simultaneous 3D printing of sorghum and soy protein gels. • Amino acid profiles showed sorghum and soy proteins were complementary. • Optimal conditions ensured high printability, confirmed by macro-microstructure. • Results highlight the potential use of hydrophobic-hydrophilic bioinks together.

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Fig. 1 . Fig.1. Images of 3D-printed sorghum protein (25 %, w/w) and soy protein (11 %, w/w) gels at a printing speed of 10 mm/s using nozzle sizes of 0.64 and 0.52 mm, respectively. SPG-SPIG: the first layer is SPG, while the second layer is SPIG. SPIG-SPG: the first layer is SPIG, while the second layer is SPG.
Fig. 1 . Fig.1. Images of 3D-printed sorghum protein (25 %, w/w) and soy protein (11 %, w/w) gels at a printing speed of 10 mm/s using nozzle sizes of 0.64 and 0.52 mm, respectively. SPG-SPIG: the first layer is SPG, while the second layer is SPIG. SPIG-SPG: the first layer is SPIG, while the second layer is SPG.CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Images of 3D-printed sorghum protein (25 %, w/w) and soy protein (11 %, w/w) gels at printing speeds of 10 and 20 mm/s using nozzle sizes of 0.52, 0.64, and 0.72 mm. N1 and N2 referred to nozzle sizes of extruder number 1 and number 2, respectively. All the images have the same scale bar as the one given in the first two images.
Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Images of 3D-printed sorghum protein (25 %, w/w) and soy protein (11 %, w/w) gels at printing speeds of 10 and 20 mm/s using nozzle sizes of 0.52, 0.64, and 0.72 mm. N1 and N2 referred to nozzle sizes of extruder number 1 and number 2, respectively. All the images have the same scale bar as the one given in the first two images.CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. (a) SEM images and of the freeze-dried sorghum and soy proteins and freeze-dried 3D-printed SPG-SPIG samples at a printing speed of 10 mm/s and nozzle sizes of 0.64 and 0.52 for SPG and SPIG, respectively, and (b) histogram of diameter ranges of sorghum proteins.
Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. (a) SEM images and of the freeze-dried sorghum and soy proteins and freeze-dried 3D-printed SPG-SPIG samples at a printing speed of 10 mm/s and nozzle sizes of 0.64 and 0.52 for SPG and SPIG, respectively, and (b) histogram of diameter ranges of sorghum proteins.CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. The peak-fitted FTIR spectra of samples in the range of 1600-1700 cm -1 . The samples were labeled SP, SPG, SPI, SPIG, and SPG-SPIG for sorghum protein, 25 % w/w sorghum gel, soy protein isolate, 11 % w/w soy protein gel, and layer by layer sorghum-soy gel, respectively.
Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. The peak-fitted FTIR spectra of samples in the range of 1600-1700 cm -1 . The samples were labeled SP, SPG, SPI, SPIG, and SPG-SPIG for sorghum protein, 25 % w/w sorghum gel, soy protein isolate, 11 % w/w soy protein gel, and layer by layer sorghum-soy gel, respectively.CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF

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Citations

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Metadata

Authors
Barekat, S., & Ubeyitogullari, A.
Affiliations
University of Arkansas at Fayetteville (US)
Corresponding author
Ubeyitogullari, Ali
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Food Engineering
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2025-11
Volume
400
Pages
112640
ISSN
0260-8774 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2025.112640
OpenAlex
W4410020478
Cited by
19
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 6
FWCI
6.19
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Food Engineering (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
  • National Institute of Food and Agriculture (1025907, 2023-67018-40747, NC1023)
  • Arkansas Biosciences Institute
  • United Sorghum Checkoff Program
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering › Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Proteins in Food Systems
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › 3D Printing in Biomedical Research
Keywords
3D food printing, bioinks, soy protein isolate, printability, printing speed, nozzle size, essential amino acid profile, gel microstructure, protein crystallinity, extruder

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