A shift of paradigm: From noradrenergic to dopaminergic modulation of learning?

“Interestingly, monoaminergic drugs, including amphetamines and also Levodopa, which metabolises into the transmitter dopamine after crossing the blood–brain barrier, have been shown to facilitate word learning in normal healthy subjects (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Breitenstein et al., 2004; Knecht et al., 2004).”

“…that the effect of MPH is mediated by noradrenaline or that the combined dopamine and noradrenaline reuptake inhibition is essential in inducing the observed effects, perhaps through noradrenergically mediated effects on attention and/or alertness (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Coull et al., 1997).”

“It has already been shown to enhance learning of new vocabulary through repetitions in healthy young adults (Knecht et al. 2004; Breitenstein et al. 2006) and memory processing of words (Newman et al. 1984) as well as motor memory formation in healthy older subjects (Floel et al. 2005, 2006).”

“1).”

“However, it has been suggested, based primarily on data from levodopa-enhanced word-list learning in normal humans, and the low rates of conversion of levodopa to norepinephrine (~5%), that dopamine plays a more dominant role [14].”

“One of the most important problem is that patients with dementia cannot be healed: the process of cognitive decline can merely be delayed.”

“, Parkinson’s disease), has the potential to enhance language learning in healthy human brains (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Knecht et al., 2004).”

“…acts on a variety of neurotransmitter systems including the dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic system but it has been suggested that the noradrenergicaction is crucial for the recovery-promoting effects after injury (Boyeson and Feeney, 1990; see however Breitenstein et al., 2006).”

“2005), associative learning (Breitenstein et al. 2006), and cognitive flexibility (Kempton et al.”

“Therefore, drugs that promote dopaminergic activity directly may be more appropriate as targeted brain modulators [8] in the context of motor skill acquisition and be associated with fewer adverse cardiovascular effects.”

“Additionally, it was recently demonstrated that dopamine neurotransmission is critically involved in encoding, consolidation and retrieval of declarative memory (Breitenstein et al. 2006a, b ; Morris et al. 2003; Whiting et al. 2007, 2008).”

“Following reports that levodopa (an exogenous dopamine precursor) had been shown to improve new word learning in healthy adults (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Knecht et al., 2004; Shellshear et al., 2015), Angwin et al.”

“If L-Dopa/dopamine does indeed enhance motor memory formation by increasing motor cortex excitability (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Floel et al., 2005a,b), its effect could be limited to the brain.”

“Seven reported that AMP improves verbal learning and memory (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Whiting et al., 2007; Zeeuws et al., 2010a, 2010b; Zeeuws & Soetens, 2007), reward learning (Soder et al., 2021) and language production (Barch & Carter, 2005), while one study found that AMP impairs verbal…”

“Variable modes of dopaminergic action may account for these discrepancies: enhanced phasic dopamine release facilitates learning, but tonic dopamine release inhibits it (Breitenstein et al., 2006a,Breitenstein et al., 2006b).”

“Breitenstein et al. (2006a) demonstrated that administration of either amphetamines or levodopa improved the ability of healthy young adults to learn, over 5 days, definitions for 50 pseudowords as trained by association with pictures of real objects.”

“This notion was supported by Breitenstein et al. who demonstrated that pergolide, a D2 receptor agonist, even impaired associative learning in healthy subjects (Breitenstein et al. 2006b).”

“Actually d-Amphetamine has a role in multiple brain transmitter systems, improved functional recovery after stroke, and its effect has been attributed to its noradrenergic systems [31].”

“Drugs that promote dopaminergic activity directly may be more appropriate targets for pharmacological enhancement of rehabilitation.(50) Levodopa, an orally administered precursor of dopamine, crosses the blood–brain barrier before being metabolised to dopamine centrally resulting in a rise in brain dopamine levels.”

“, Parkinson’s disease), has the potential to enhance language learning in healthy human brains (Breitenstein et al., 2006; Knecht et al., 2004).”

“[42] Breitenstein C, Flöer A, Korsukeweitz C et al.”

“5,6 Therefore, this study presents the first systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs that specifically evaluate the efficacy of levodopa-based therapy in stroke rehabilitation.”

“It was demonstrated that L-Dopa improved the learning of word lists by acute stroke patients compared to those receiving a placebo [45].”

“Zum Einfluss der Händigkeit auf Motor Imagery existiert eine Arbeit von Maruff et al [86], die zeigte, dass Geschwindigkeitsunterschiede zwischen dominanter und nicht-dominanter Hand für Ausführung einer bestimmten Bewegung bei Bewegungsvorstellung größer sind, als bei tatsächlicher Bewegung.”