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Epidemiology of mild traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disease
Open accessAbstract
Every year an estimated 42 million people worldwide suffer a mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) or concussion. More severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a well-established risk factor for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Recently, large epidemiological studies have additionally identified MTBI as a risk factor for dementia. The role of MTBI in risk of PD or ALS is less well established. Repetitive MTBI and repetitive sub-concussive head trauma have been linked to increased risk for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases including chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is a unique neurodegenerative tauopathy first described in boxers but more recently described in a variety of contact sport athletes, military veterans, and civilians exposed to repetitive MTBI. Studies of repetitive MTBI and CTE have been limited by referral bias, lack of consensus clinical criteria for CTE, challenges of quantifying MTBI exposure, and potential for confounding. The prevalence of CTE is unknown and the amount of MTBI or sub-concussive trauma exposure necessary to produce CTE is unclear. This review will summarize the current literature regarding the epidemiology of MTBI, post-TBI dementia and Parkinson's disease, and CTE while highlighting methodological challenges and critical future directions of research in this field. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Traumatic Brain Injury.
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“Traumatic brain injury may be a significant environmental risk factor for several progressive neurodegenerative disorders [496].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gardner, R. C., & Yaffe, K.
- Affiliations
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- San Francisco VA Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gardner, Raquel C.
- Venue
- Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-05
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- Pt B
- Pages
- 75-80
- ISSN
- 1044-7431 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4461453
- OpenAlex
- W2078379881
- Cited by
- 673
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 10
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Academic Affiliations Advanced Fellowship Program in Mental Illness Research and Treatment
- Medical Research Service of the San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center
- Department of Veterans Affairs Sierra-Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC)
- National Institutes of Health (NIH) (K24 AG031155)
- Department of Defense (W81XWH-12-1-0581)
- Department of Veterans Affairs
- California Department of Public Health
- Bright Focus Foundation
- Alzheimer’s Association
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Automotive and Human Injury Biomechanics
- Keywords
- mild traumatic brain injury, concussion, neurodegenerative diseases, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, dementia, repetitive head impacts, tauopathy, risk factors, epidemiology, military veterans, contact athletes
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autopsy, Brain Injuries, Humans, Risk, Risk Factors, Prevalence, Neurodegenerative Diseases
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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