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Cited by 433Obesity, Physical Activity, DietObesity and Health PracticesDiabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 241 of the 242 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 1 are not checked yet.

Obesity: Prevalence, causes, consequences, management, preventive strategies and future research directions

Open access
Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid, Mohammed, Ribwar Arsalan·2025·Metabolism Open
DOI 10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375PMC PMC12486175
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Abstract

Obesity has emerged as one of the most pressing global public health challenges of the 21st century. Obesity has reached epidemic proportions worldwide, with over 1 billion people classified as obese in 2022, representing 13 % of the global population. Since 1975, obesity rates have tripled, and projections indicate that by 2035, around 1.9 billion adults-approximately 25 % of the world's population-will be affected. Looking further ahead to 2050, it is estimated that 3.80 billion adults, representing more than half of the anticipated global adult population, will be living with overweight or obesity. The increasing burden of obesity is associated with an alarming rise in non-communicable diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and multiple cancers, collectively contributing to over 5 million deaths annually. Obesity is driven by complex interactions between genetic, behavioral, environmental, and socioeconomic factors, with rapid urbanization and globalization accelerating the consumption of high-calorie diets and sedentary lifestyles. While historically prevalent in high-income nations, obesity rates are now rising most rapidly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with over 70 % of obese individuals living in developing nations. The economic costs of obesity are staggering, with projections estimating a global financial burden of $4.32 trillion per year by 2035, equivalent to 3 % of the global GDP. This article explores the epidemiology, determinants, health implications, and policy responses to obesity, emphasizing the urgent need for multisectoral strategies to mitigate its impact. Public health initiatives, taxation on sugar-sweetened beverages, improved food regulations, and increased physical activity promotion are essential components of evidence-based interventions. Addressing the obesity crisis requires global cooperation to implement sustainable, long-term strategies targeting both prevention and treatment.

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Crossref · 10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375

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Figures

Fig. 1 Body Mass Index (BMI) classifications for weight status [87].
Fig. 1 Body Mass Index (BMI) classifications for weight status [87].CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 The principal factors leading to obesity. source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Fig. 2 The principal factors leading to obesity. source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Energy balance and its impact on weight regulation.
Fig. 3 Energy balance and its impact on weight regulation.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 The relationship between Ultra-Processed Food (UPF) foods and obesity. Source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Fig. 4 The relationship between Ultra-Processed Food (UPF) foods and obesity. Source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Highlights the extensive impact of obesity on various organs.
Fig. 5 Highlights the extensive impact of obesity on various organs.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Highlights Major cancers associated with obesity.
Fig. 6 Highlights Major cancers associated with obesity.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 7 Various lifestyle modifications to prevent and manage obesity.
Fig. 7 Various lifestyle modifications to prevent and manage obesity.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 8 Illustrates three weight loss surgical interventions.
Fig. 8 Illustrates three weight loss surgical interventions.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Citations

Cites

Show all 239 references

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Das, 2024, Pathophysiology of obesity: an extensive review, Indo Global J Pharmaceut Sci, 14, 1
  2. 2024, Economic impact of overweight and obesity to surpass $4 trillion by 2035, World Obes

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Metadata

Authors
Ahmed, S. K., & Mohammed, R. A.
Affiliations
University of Raparin (IQ)
Corresponding author
Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid
ORCID
Venue
Metabolism Open
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2025-09
Volume
27
Pages
100375
ISSN
2589-9368 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375
PMC
PMC12486175
OpenAlex
W4411248990
Semantic Scholar
0279e2a43f943eec9d75c66a6c5744b5650fb570
Cited by
432
References
239
Citations by year
2026: 358 · 2025: 74
FWCI
70.65
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Metabolism Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity and Health Practices
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
Keywords
obesity, obesity prevalence, obesity epidemiology, determinants of obesity, non-communicable diseases, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, economic burden of obesity, low- and middle-income countries, urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, hypercaloric diet, sugar-sweetened beverage tax, food regulation, physical activity promotion, obesity prevention, obesity treatment, multisectoral policy

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