Gene expressivity on educational attainment increases with age, and then slows
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This manifests as both a decrease in the additive genetic variance (starting in midlife) and an increase in the nonshared environmental variance components (the anti-Wilson Effect).
“This manifests as both a decrease in the additive (starting in midlife) and an increase in the nonshared environmental variance components (termed the anti-Wilson Effect; Sarraf et al., 2023Sarraf et al., , 2025, Fig. 1, p. 2, see also Morris et al., 2025 for similar findings in relation to age-dependent increases in non-shared environmentality amongst younger cohorts).”
From A Meta-Analysis of Spearman’s Hypothesis in the United States (2026) · cites this paper as Sarraf et al., 2025
The age-related attenuation of Spearman's Hypothesis is compatible with anti-Wilson-effect accounts of late-life cognition, in which the genetic structuring of g becomes increasingly disrupted by cumulative environmental insults.
“This is compatible with anti-Wilson-effect accounts of late-life cognition, in which the genetic structuring of g becomes increasingly disrupted by cumulative environmental insults (Sarraf et al., 2023(Sarraf et al., , 2025)).”
From A Meta-Analysis of Spearman’s Hypothesis in the United States (2026) · cites this paper as Sarraf et al., 2025
Cites
23andMe Research Team, Lee, J. J., COGENT (Cognitive Genomics Consortium), Social Science Genetic Association Consortium, Wedow, R., Okbay, A., Kong, E., Maghzian, O., Zacher, M., Nguyen-Viet, T. A., et al. (2018) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0147-3 · Cited by 2,470 · see citing works
Classical twin studies and beyond
Boomsma, D., Busjahn, A., & Peltonen, L. (2002) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg932 · Cited by 1,105 · see citing works
Selection against variants in the genome associated with educational attainment
Kong, A., Frigge, M. L., Thorleifsson, G., Stefansson, H., Young, A. I., Zink, F., Jonsdottir, G. A., Okbay, A., Sulem, P., Masson, G., et al. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1612113114 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Sarraf, M. A., Woodley of Menie, M. A., & Peñaherrera-Aguirre, M. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111969 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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A Meta-Analysis of Spearman’s Hypothesis in the United States
Woodley of Menie, M., Peñaherrera-Aguirre, M., & Sarraf, M. (2026) · Intelligence & Cognitive Abilities · doi:10.65550/001c.171909
Self-citation
- Authors
- Sarraf, M. A., Woodley of Menie, M. A., Peñaherrera-Aguirre, M., & Ujma, P. P.
- Affiliations
- Semmelweis University (HU)
- Corresponding author
- Ujma, Péter P.
- ORCID
- Ujma, Péter P.
- Venue
- Personality and Individual Differences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2025-01
- Volume
- 232
- Pages
- 112850
- ISSN
- 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4401937485
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1
- FWCI
- 0.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- Wilson effect, educational attainment, polygenic risk score, aging, heritability, gene-environment interaction, memory decline
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