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Principles of exercise physiology: responses to acute exercise and long-term adaptations to training
Abstract
Physical activity and fitness are associated with a lower prevalence of chronic diseases, such as heart disease, cancer, high blood pressure, and diabetes. This review discusses the body's response to an acute bout of exercise and long-term physiological adaptations to exercise training with an emphasis on endurance exercise. An overview is provided of skeletal muscle actions, muscle fiber types, and the major metabolic pathways involved in energy production. The importance of adequate fluid intake during exercise sessions to prevent impairments induced by dehydration on endurance exercise, muscular power, and strength is discussed. Physiological adaptations that result from regular exercise training such as increases in cardiorespiratory capacity and strength are mentioned. The review emphasizes the cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations that lead to improvements in maximal oxygen capacity.
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“At the level of the muscle a period of endurance training leads to improvements in blood flow, mitochondrial content and an improved ability to extract and utilise oxygen during exercise [7].”
From New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“Structured endurance training leads to improvements in fatigue resistance partly by altering the phenotype of the skeletal muscle performing the work [7].”
From New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
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“, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)) that promote cellular adaptations, leading to increased capacities against subsequent stresses [11,12].”
BackgroundAcute exercise inhibits gastric emptying of liquids in rats: influence of the NO-cGMP pathway
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“These phenomena together imply in an adaptive response to physical training (Rivera-Brown and Frontera 2012).”
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“Physical activity causes adaptations in multiple tissues including the cardiovascular system, skeletal muscles, and bones.(14)”
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“That is, physical training confers functional and structural changes to the heart that improve its performance [59, 60].”
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“Additionally, this could lead to an increase in the supply of electrolytes such as sodium ions to these tissues [26–28].”
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“[43] In turn, the free radicals have signaling pathways common to inflammation and can damage tissues, triggering an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines.”
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BackgroundExercise-induced stress pathways: Crosstalk between AMPK, HSPs, and inflammation
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Jiang, L., Ding, H., Seo, H., & Chun, B. (2025) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01756-z · Cited by 8
“Moreover, physiological adaptations acquired during intervention—such as improved cardiorespiratory fitness, enhanced skeletal muscle metabolism, and recovery of lower-limb power—build a “physiological reserve” that supports functional stability in the absence of continued training [47–49].”
Guo, Y., Xin, X., & Liu, P. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1731510 · Cited by 2
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“It is well known that anaerobic glycolysis is at its highest after about 40–50 s and starts to decrease thereafter due to inhibitory effects of the high La, low pH situation [36].”
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“Endurance exercise induces adaptations in the cardiovascular system that allow an increase in capillary number and plasma volume expansion, supporting a greater surface area for gas exchange and the movement of blood, and thus enhancing oxygen transport to the active muscles [1].”
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Schuhmann, V., Küttel, J., Eijgen, J. V., Gugleta, K., & Hanssen, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2026.1834649 · Cited by 1
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“Repeated planned exercise sessions delivered over a de fi ned intervention period and capable of producing physiological adaptation (14) (16).”
InfluentialAllgemeine Grundlagen, Planung und Organisation des Trainings
Hofmann, P., Tschakert, G., & Müller, A. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-99716-1_15 · Cited by 1
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BackgroundAmbulatory Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: Times Are Changing
Wojack, C. A., VanBlarcom, A. G., & Casida, J. M. (2021) · AACN Advanced Critical Care · doi:10.4037/aacnacc2021604 · Cited by 1
Серман, Т. (2022) · Journal of Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University · doi:10.15330/jpnu.9.1.219-226 · Cited by 1
“04 s) cannot characterize the activation of humoral regulation [6], [8].”
BackgroundPOSTURE OPTIMIZATION IN SWIMMING BASED ON SPORTS MECHANICS
Yun-feng, Q., & Jin, K. (2023) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte · doi:10.1590/1517-8692202329012022_0528 · Cited by 1
“This paper was supported by (1) Research on the new mode of Venue operation of Summer Asian Cup from the perspective of Sports and education integration with Chinese characteristics, Project Number: L21BTY002; (2) Project funded by Physical Education Bureau of Shanxi Province (19TY119); (3) Project funded by Taiyuan N…”
MethodAkgümüş, A., Kurtoğlu, A., Aydın, E., Balun, A., Çar, B., Eken, Ö., & Aldhahi, M. I. (2023) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12872-023-03508-0 · Cited by 1
“…that REG participants exhibited superior LVDd, LVEDV, and SVi compared with their RSG counterparts, potentially as a consequence of elevated blood pressure, facilitating augmented skeletal muscle blood flow [32], diminished peripheral resistance, and enhanced cardiac contractile capacity [33].”
BackgroundImpact of aging on maximal oxygen uptake in female runners and sedentary controls
Souza, V. R. D. A., Vivan, L., Seffrin, A., Vallini, L., Domingos, F. D. P., de Lira, C. A. B., Vancini, R. L., Weiss, K., Rosemann, T. J., Knechtle, B., et al. (2024) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2024.112476 · Cited by 2
Genetics, Fitness, and Left Ventricular Remodelling: The Current State of Play
Rowe, S. J., Bekhuis, Y., Mitchell, A. M., Janssens, K., D’Ambrosio, P., Spencer, L. W., Paratz, E. D., Claessen, G., Fatkin, D., & Gerche, A. L. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2024.12.017 · Cited by 1
Dedal, R. M. A., Moncada, K. M. M., Compendio, J. A., Corpin, J. P. M., Lisondra, A. L., Bui, R. C., Millan, M. S. R., Angoy, R. D., Alcisto, J. D. A., Niñal, C. D., et al. (2025) · Sportis Scientific Journal of School Sport Physical Education and Psychomotricity · doi:10.17979/sportis.2025.11.2.11283 · Cited by 1
Dwiantari, I. G. A., Laksmidewi, A. A. A. P., Adnyana, I. M. O., & Widyadharma, I. P. E. (2020) · Biomedical & Pharmacology Journal · doi:10.13005/bpj/2081 · Cited by 1
Shibata, N., Matsumoto, K., Shono, A., Suzuki, M., Sumimoto, K., Tanaka, Y., Yamashita, K., Yokota, S., Suto, M., Dokuni, K., et al. (2021) · ESC Heart Failure · doi:10.1002/ehf2.13346 · Cited by 1
“Healthy individuals are known to be able to increase cardiac output by as much as five times or more during strenuous exercise.(14) This extraordinary ability is attributed to the increase in ventricular contractility, chronotropic function, and peripheral arterial dilation, with instantaneous recruitment of the cardi…”
BackgroundPhysiology of Detraining in Older Population: Pandemic Time Considerations
Anaya, A. M., Serna, D., Torres, P., Bustamante, N., Callejas, P., Garcia, J., Escobar, C., Pabon, H., & Garzón, M. (2020) · Archives of Physical Health and Sports Medicine · doi:10.22259/2639-1805.0302005 · Cited by 1
Nämi, P. (2015) · DSpace repository (University of Tartu)
Recognizing cerebrovascular etiologies of “thunderclap” headaches
Gil‐Gouveia, R. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511740350.013
Leite, G. S. F., de Mello, M. T., Tufik, S., & Antunes, H. K. M. (2016) · Motricidade · doi:10.6063/motricidade.6522
Assessment of low-force exercise in human paralyzed muscle
Petrie, M. A., Shields, R. K., Casey, D. P., Cook, T. M., DeJong, S. L., & Dove, E. L. (2016) · doi:10.17077/etd.03yfha7y
Sugiharto, A., Hadisaputr, S., Soegiyanto, Sakti, H., Susanto, H., Rahayu, T., Suwondo, A., & Sutiningsi, D. (2019) · Journal of Medical Sciences(Faisalabad) · doi:10.3923/jms.2020.29.33
Advantages and concerns of aquatic exercise for cardiovascular rehabilitation patients
Murry, J. (2015) · Minds at UW (University of Wisconsin)
Brandão, C. F. C. E. C. M. (2019) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.17.2019.tde-10042019-092726
Kuorelahti, T. (2019) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä)
Activación de vías redox en respuesta a cargas únicas de ejercicio
Espinoza, B. L. A., Legleu, C. E. C., González-Rodríguez, E., & Reza‐López, S. A. (2020) · Revista de Ciencias del Ejercicio FOD · doi:10.29105/rcefod15.1-26
Nasikhah, A. D. (2021) · Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology · doi:10.37506/ijfmt.v15i1.13520
“The total energy available in the stored ATP-PCr is sufficient for short duration exercises, such as lifting weights, high jumps, or 10-second sprints(14).”
BackgroundSWIM TRAINING REVERSES SOME EFFECTS OF NANDROLONE DECANOATE IN WISTAR RATS
do Nascimento, L. C. G., Eustáquio, J. M. J., Mendes, L. P., dos Santos, R. O., & Neto, O. B. (2021) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte · doi:10.1590/1517-8692202127022020_0077
Zulissetiana, E. F., Laeto, A. B., Santoso, B., Alkaf, S., & Fatimah, N. (2021) · Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat Humanity and Medicine · doi:10.32539/hummed.v2i1.46
The Effect of Dietary Nitrate and Anthocyanins on Anaerobic Exercise Performance
Huang, Y., Sánchez, A., & Tsai, P. (2019) · The Scholars Repository - LLU (Loma Linda University)
Metadata
- Authors
- Rivera‐Brown, A. M., & Frontera, W. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus (PR)
- Corresponding author
- Rivera‐Brown, Anita M.
- Venue
- PM&R
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 797-804
- ISSN
- 1934-1482 (ISSN-L)
- 1934-1563
- OpenAlex
- W2092211000
- Cited by
- 228
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 1.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- PM&R (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Keywords
- acute exercise response, training effects, endurance exercise, skeletal muscle, muscle fiber type, energy metabolism, dehydration, fluid intake, cardiorespiratory capacity, muscle strength, cardiovascular adaptation, metabolic adaptation
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Adenosine Triphosphate, Age Factors, Blood Pressure, Cardiac Output, Dehydration, Energy Metabolism, Glycolysis, Heart Rate, Humans, Mitochondria, Muscle, Muscle Contraction, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Oxygen Consumption, Phosphocreatine, Physical Education and Training, Physical Endurance, Physical Fitness, Plasma Volume, Sex Factors, Exercise, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Fibers, Skeletal, Lactic Acid
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