Toxicity of lunar dust
Open accessAbstract
The formation, composition and physical properties of lunar dust are incompletely characterised with regard to human health. While the physical and chemical determinants of dust toxicity for materials such as asbestos, quartz, volcanic ashes and urban particulate matter have been the focus of substantial research efforts, lunar dust properties, and therefore lunar dust toxicity may differ substantially. In this contribution, past and ongoing work on dust toxicity is reviewed, and major knowledge gaps that prevent an accurate assessment of lunar dust toxicity are identified. Finally, a range of studies using ground-based, low-gravity, and in situ measurements is recommended to address the identified knowledge gaps. Because none of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface, studies using this material carry with them considerable uncertainty in terms of fidelity. As a consequence, in situ data on lunar dust properties will be required to provide ground truth for ground-based studies quantifying the toxicity of dust exposure and the associated health risks during future manned lunar missions.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review by the Topical Team on Toxicity of Lunar Dust concludes that lunar dust exposure is likely to cause toxic reactions and should be avoided or minimized, but current knowledge is highly incomplete. It identifies major gaps in lunar dust physical/chemical properties and health effects, and recommends ground-based, low-gravity, and in situ studies because curated Apollo samples are not pristine and cannot fully represent reactive lunar surface dust.
Key findings
- Lunar dust is the <20 µm fraction of lunar soil, about 20 wt% of Apollo soils; its formation by micrometeoroid impacts and radiation exposure in the absence of oxygen and humidity may produce toxicity exceeding that of terrestrial simulants, and Apollo astronauts reported skin, eye, and airway effects from dust brought into their spacecraft.
- In LADTAG rat intratracheal instillation studies using three Apollo 14 preparations at 1, 2.5, and 7.5 mg per rat, the inflammatory response was intermediate between titanium dioxide and quartz controls at 7 and 30 days; a preliminary permissible exposure limit of 1.0 mg/m³ for 6–7 months of intermittent exposure was determined using benchmark dose analysis.
- Ball-mill-ground Apollo 14 dust showed 7-fold greater hydroxyl radical generation in aqueous buffer than jet-milled or unground dust by the terephthalate assay, and increased macrophage reactivity, supporting mechanochemical activation as a determinant of lunar dust toxicity.
- In reduced gravity, deposition is more peripheral: lunar gravity reduced overall deposition but for a given deposition fraction deposition occurred more peripherally than in 1 G, and microgravity showed higher-than-expected deposition of 0.5 and 1.0 µm particles.
Methods
- Design: review and synthesis by the Topical Team on Toxicity of Lunar Dust (T3LD), with no new primary data; it reviews physical chemistry determinants of dust toxicity, lunar dust composition and size, airway transport, non-pulmonary effects, animal models, exhaled markers, and pulmonary effects, and uses Tables 1–2 to list knowledge gaps and recommended studies.
- Data or sample: published literature and prior/ongoing studies, including Apollo 14 lunar dust preparations, lunar simulants JSC-1, JSC-1A, and JSC-1Avf, animal and cellular models, and human parabolic-flight/microgravity/lunar-gravity aerosol deposition studies.
- Main analysis: narrative synthesis and identification of knowledge gaps; recommends ground-based, low-gravity, and in situ measurements to constrain lunar dust toxicity.
Limitations
- Paper states: curated lunar samples are not pristine and their chemical reactivity is unlikely to mirror in situ lunar material because they have not been exposed to radiation and micrometeoroid impacts for 40–50 years, nor kept under vacuum; studies using this material carry considerable uncertainty in fidelity.
- Paper states: a comprehensive study of the very small (<1 µm) lunar dust fraction is missing; classic particle size distribution measurements did not consider particles <1 µm; surface morphology is poorly characterized; and Apollo samples are near-equatorial and may not represent proposed polar or South Pole–Aitken landing sites.
- Evident from the text: as a review, it does not provide new experimental toxicity data; many conclusions rely on extrapolation from terrestrial dusts, simulants, and incomplete or ongoing studies, and some cited observations are unpublished.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 112 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data§ 8.1. Intratracheal instillation studies · p. 32
For the bronchioalveolar lavage fluid endpoints, the three different preparations of lunar dust were not distinguishable.
“For these bronchioalveolar lavage fluid endpoints, the three different preparations of lunar dust were not distinguishable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ 8.1. Intratracheal instillation studies · p. 32
The inflammatory response in rats to lunar dust is intermediate between that of the titanium dioxide and quartz controls, at 7 days and at 30 days post exposure.
“Using bronchioalveolar lavage fluid cell counts, lactate dehydrogenase levels, albumin, and total protein as markers of inflammation, these experiments demonstrated that the inflammatory response in rats to lunar dust is intermediate between that of the titanium dioxide and quartz controls, at 7 days and at 30 days post exposure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Santana et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 2.2. Fate of a particle in the body following inhalation · p. 8
This process depends upon both the particle surface properties and protein characteristics.
“This process depends upon both the particle surface properties and protein characteristics (Lynch and Dawson, 2008; Nel et al., 2009; Norde, 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given§ Abstract · p. 3
The formation, composition and physical properties of lunar dust are incompletely characterised with regard to human health.
“The formation, composition and physical properties of lunar dust are incompletely characterised with regard to human health.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Abstract · p. 3
Studies using curated lunar samples carry considerable uncertainty in terms of fidelity because none of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
“Because none of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface, studies using this material carry with them considerable uncertainty in terms of fidelity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
- Premisecitation§ 2.2. Fate of a particle in the body following inhalation · p. 8
Before interacting with cells, particles will adsorb molecules (mainly proteins) from the surrounding fluids, resulting in partial or full coating.
“Before interacting with cells, particles will adsorb molecules (mainly proteins) from the surrounding fluids, resulting in partial or full coating (Turci et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Turci et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1. Introduction · p. 5
Dust exposure and inhalation could have a range of toxic effects on human lunar explorers, especially if longer exposure times become the norm during future manned exploration missions.
“Dust exposure and inhalation could have a range of toxic effects on human lunar explorers, especially if longer exposure times become the norm during future manned exploration missions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 2.3. Physical-chemical factors related to toxicity 190 · p. 10
Surface charge and H-bonding potential are the main determinants for phospholipid and protein adsorption, which in turn is implicated in cell adhesion and membrane activation or rupture.
“Surface charge and H-bonding potential . These are the main determinants for phospholipid and protein adsorption, which in turn is implicated in cell adhesion and membrane activation or rupture (Nel et al., 2009; Nel et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15
Lunar dust appears to have many of the characteristics of particulate matter that cause adverse health effects.
“Lunar dust appears to have many of the characteristics of particulate matter that cause adverse health effects (section 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
The relative proportions of each phase vary as a function of bedrock type (mare versus highland), size fraction and soil maturity.
“The relative proportions of each phase vary as a function of bedrock type (mare versus highland), size fraction and soil maturity (a measure of the exposure age of the surface, with more mature soils having been exposed for longer periods of time).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
The more mature and smaller size fractions contain larger proportions of impact glass.
“The more mature and smaller size fractions contain larger proportions of impact glass.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
A key observation, which may be important for lunar dust toxicity, is the presence of nanophase iron [np-Fe] in glassy rims of dust particles.
“A key observation, which may be important for lunar dust toxicity, is the presence of nanophase iron [np-Fe] in glassy rims of dust particles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
The proportion of np-Fe found was lower than predicted by Taylor and co-workers.
“However, the proportion of np-Fe found was lower than predicted by Taylor and co-workers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thompson and Christoffersen, 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
A recent study by Thompson and Christoffersen (2010) confirmed that approximately 80 % of submicron dust particles consists of glass.
“A recent study by Thompson and Christoffersen (2010) confirmed that approximately 80 % of submicron dust particles consists of glass.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thompson and Christoffersen, 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
Based on automated point-counting of > 150,000 areas in each sample, Taylor and colleagues conclude that > 70 % of dust consists of pyroxene, plagioclase, and impact glass-rich particles.
“Based on automated point-counting of > 150,000 areas in each sample, they conclude that > 70 % of dust consists of pyroxene, plagioclase, and impact glass-rich particles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13
The mechanical properties of JSC-1A are close to those of real lunar soil.
“The mechanical properties of JSC-1A are close to those of real lunar soil.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12
Nanophase iron is formed during vapour deposition caused by flash heating of mineral or glass phases due to (micro)meteoroid impacts.
“This phase is formed during vapour deposition caused by flash heating of mineral or glass phases due to (micro)meteoroid impacts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 17
Some similarities may be found between terrestrial volcanic ashes and lunar dust.
“Some similarities may be found between terrestrial volcanic ashes and lunar dust.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15
Freshly fractured lunar regolith is able to produce large amounts of highly reactive oxygen species.
“Hurowitz and colleagues observed that freshly fractured lunar regolith is able to produce large amounts of highly reactive oxygen species (Hurowitz et al., 2007) which are known to induce inflammation and adverse effects on cellular metabolism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hurowitz et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15
Lunar dust particles will be rich in dangling bonds and unsatisfied valencies because of mechanical impacts and abrasion of bedrock and regolith.
“Lunar dust particles will be rich in dangling bonds and unsatisfied valencies because of mechanical impacts and abrasion of bedrock and regolith (Figure 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21
In contrast, particles that reach the alveolar region of the lungs are removed by alveolar macrophages, which engulf the particles (phagocytosis) and eventually transport them to the mucociliary clearance system for removal.
“In contrast, particles that reach the alveolar region of the lungs are removed by the alveolar macrophages, which engulf the particles (phagocytosis) and eventually transport them to the mucociliary clearance system for removal (Figure 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 17
These iron-containing materials could react with hydrogen peroxide to undergo a surface-induced Fenton-like reaction, ultimately producing reactive free radicals.
“These iron-containing materials could react with hydrogen peroxide to undergo a surface-induced Fenton-like reaction, ultimately producing reactive free radicals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15
Continuous exposure to radiation and solar winds will enrich the particles in reactive sites and electron donating centers.
“Continuous exposure to radiation and solar winds will enrich the particles in reactive sites and electron donating centers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 17
In terrestrial ashes, iron is always only partially oxidised to trivalent iron.
“In terrestrial ashes, iron is always only partially oxidised to trivalent iron.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16
Nanophase iron particles are an expected source of toxicity because of their size and the complex redox chemistry taking place at their surface when exposed to air.
“Nanophase iron particles are also an expected source of toxicity because of their size and the complex redox chemistry taking place at their surface when exposed to air.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisereasoning§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20
Particles that deposit on the mucus layer are transported by it and thus eliminated.
“Particles that deposit on the mucus layer are transported by it and thus eliminated.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16
Some surface active sites on lunar dust may readily react upon contact with water in the body.
“However, some surface active sites may readily react upon contact with water in the body.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1. Basic mechanisms of particle deposition · p. 17
Changes in deposition in reduced gravity may alter the toxicological potential of an airborne dust.
“and so the changes in deposition in reduced gravity may alter the toxicological potential of an airborne dust.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21
The same study also showed that the unexpectedly high deposition of small particles (0.5 and 1.0 μm) seen in microgravity was still present in a lunar-gravity environment.
“The same study also showed that the unexpectedly high deposition of small particles (0.5 and 1.0 μ m) seen in microgravity was still present in a lunar-gravity environment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Darquenne and Prisk, 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationnone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 17
Even after exposure to air, lunar dust will keep a large fraction of its iron in a low oxidation state.
“Similarly, even after exposure to air lunar dust will keep a large fraction of its iron in a low oxidation state.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21
However this process is much slower.
“However this process is much slower.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21
In addition, Oberdörster and co-workers showed that nanosized particles can escape macrophage surveillance, leading to even longer residence times than observed for micron-sized particles.
“In addition, Oberdörster and co-workers showed that nanosized particles can escape macrophage surveillance, leading to even longer residence times than observed for micron-sized particles (Oberdörster et al., 2005b).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oberdörster et al., 2005b
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16
Nanoparticles have been reported to be embedded into a vitreous matrix in lunar dust grain rims.
“Such nanoparticles have been reported to be embedded into a vitreous matrix in lunar dust grain rims (Wallace et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wallace et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20
Hence, the mucociliary clearance system serves to reduce the time a potentially toxic particle can effect the underlying tissues.
“Hence, the mucociliary clearance system serves to reduce the time a potentially toxic particle can effect the underlying tissues (Fanizza et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fanizza et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 22
There are now recent data on the changes in the site of deposition in rat lungs when gravity is altered.
“There are now recent data on the changes in the site of deposition in rat lungs when gravity is altered.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16
Taking into account long clearance times and persistent particle disruption at the lunar surface, it seems likely that the iron surface might come in direct contact with cells and tissues.
“Taking into account the long clearance times expected (which may allow partial dissolution of the amorphous silicate) and the persistent particle disruption taking place at the lunar surface, it seems likely that the iron surface might come in direct contact with cells and tissues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20
This mucociliary clearance system is quite effective with clearance times in the order of hours and typically less than 24 hours for particles depositing in the central airways.
“This mucociliary clearance system is quite effective with clearance times in the order of hours and typically less than 24 hours for particles depositing in the central airways (Scheuch et al., 1996; Smaldone et al., 1988; Stahlhofen and et al., 1989).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ 4.1. Basic mechanisms of particle deposition · p. 17
The transport of inhaled particles in the airways is generally considered to be governed by three principal transport mechanisms: inertial impaction, sedimentation, and diffusion.
“The transport of inhaled particles in the airways is generally considered to be governed by three principal transport mechanisms: inertial impaction which primarily affects particles in a size range > ~5 μ m; sedimentation which dominates the size range ~0.5 to 8 μ m; and diffusion for particles smaller than ~0.5 μ m (West, 2001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites West, 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15
On the Moon dangling bonds and charges will be more abundant and persist for much longer periods of time in the absence of oxygen or liquid water, which both assist defect healing and surface reconstruction.
“Furthermore on the Moon dangling bonds and charges will be more abundant and persist for much longer periods of time in the absence of oxygen or liquid water, which both assist defect healing and surface reconstruction (Wallace et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wallace et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16
Fully hydrophobic and fully hydrophilic silicas appear much less cytotoxic than specimens with mixtures of hydrophilic and hydrophobic sites.
“fully hydrophobic (Fubini et al., 1999) and fully hydrophilic (Gazzano et al., submitted) silicas appear much less cytotoxic than specimens with mixtures of hydrophilic and hydrophobic sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Fubini et al., 1999
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Gazzano et al., submitted
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23
Research findings support two mechanisms hypothesized to be involved in the pathological response of the cardiovascular system to air pollution exposure: inflammation and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system.
“Research findings support two mechanisms that are hypothesized to be involved in the pathological response of the cardiovascular system to air pollution exposure. These mechanisms are inflammation and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27
The disadvantage of liquid instillation is an uneven distribution of poorly de-agglomerated materials in the lungs, quite different from ambient air exposures in experimental studies or in nature.
“The disadvantage of this method is an uneven distribution of poorly de-agglomerated materials in the lungs, quite different from ambient air exposures in experimental studies or in nature (Driscoll et al., 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Driscoll et al., 2000 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23
Extrapolating the cardiovascular effects of inhaled terrestrial dusts to the possible cardiovascular effects of lunar dust on astronauts is fraught with uncertainty because of several critical gaps in the scientific understanding of this topic.
“Extrapolating the cardiovascular effects of inhaled terrestrial dusts to the possible cardiovascular effects of lunar dust on astronauts is fraught with uncertainty because of several critical gaps in the scientific understanding of this topic.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 5.2. Ocular and skin effects · p. 25
The abrasive properties of lunar dust have been documented in a variety of settings.
“The abrasive properties of lunar dust have been documented in a variety of settings (Gaier et al., 2009; Kobrick et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gaier et al., 2009
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Kobrick et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 33
Freshly-fractured quartz is more toxic than aged quartz.
“Freshly-fractured quartz is more toxic than aged quartz”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fubini and Hubbard, 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 7.3. Effects of gravity and atmospheric pressure on exhaled NO · p. 31
Normal healthy control values of exhaled NO are reduced in microgravity.
“Studies have shown that normal healthy control values of exhaled NO are reduced in microgravity (Karlsson et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Karlsson et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 33
Increased surface radical content of freshly-fractured material is well-correlated with enhanced toxicity.
“Increased surface radical content of the freshly-fractured material is well-correlated with enhanced toxicity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fubini, 1998; Fubini and Hubbard, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 9. Knowledge gaps and recommendations · p. 35
The chemical reactivity of Apollo samples is unlikely to mirror that of lunar material in situ, since they have not been exposed to radiation and micrometeoroid impacts for the last 40-50 years, nor have they been kept under vacuum.
“Moreover, their chemical reactivity is unlikely to mirror that of lunar material in situ , since they have not been exposed to radiation and micrometeoroid impacts (Figure 9) for the last 40-50 years - nor have they been kept under vacuum.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 33
The higher reactivity of dangling bonds and their potential to generate free radicals in aqueous solutions is the ascribed explanation for the correlation between increased surface radical content and enhanced toxicity.
“This finding is ascribed to the higher reactivity of dangling bonds and their potential to generate free radicals in aqueous solutions (Fubini, 1998; Fubini and Hubbard, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fubini, 1998; Fubini and Hubbard, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 10. Summary · p. 36
Exposure of humans to lunar dust is likely to give rise to toxic reactions.
“Exposure of humans to lunar dust is likely to give rise to toxic reactions and should therefore be avoided, or at least minimized by undertaking a risk assessment and instigating appropriate measures to reduce exposure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 33
The leading explanation for freshly-fractured quartz being more toxic than aged quartz is mechanochemical activation: mechanical disruption of quartz results in homolytic and heterolytic rupture of silicon-oxygen bonds.
“the leading explanation for this observation is the concept that mechanical disruption of quartz results in the homolytic and heterolytic rupture of the silicon-oxygen bonds ('mechanochemical activation') (Fubini and Hubbard, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fubini and Hubbard, 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ 8. Pulmonary effects · p. 32
The three preparations of respirable lunar dust had comparable particle size, as determined by laser diffraction in an aqueous suspension.
“The three preparations of respirable lunar dust had comparable particle size, as determined by laser diffraction in an aqueous suspension (Rask et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rask et al., 2012
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 10. Summary · p. 36
Currently used simulants of lunar dust and existing samples of actual lunar material are useful only for initial pilot experiments with cellular, animal and human experimental models of astronaut exposure to lunar dust.
“Currently used simulants of lunar dust and existing samples of actual lunar material are useful only for initial pilot experiments with cellular, animal and human experimental models of astronaut exposure to lunar dust.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
- Rests on an assumption: Previous work on the toxic effects of lunar material and simulants of lunar material in animal and cellular models has been made with the particles in aqueous media to avoid the large losses of precious material typical of conventional inhalation techniques.
- Rests on an assumption: New techniques are now being developed which permit more economical inhalation studies in small animals.
- Rests on an assumption: Previous work on animal and cellular models has not addressed the effects of dust that has been 'activated' with UV or proton radiation.
- Interpretationown data§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 33
The macrophage reactivity studies suggest that differences in chemical reactivity are in fact correlated with differences in biological response for lunar dust.
“Indeed, the macrophage reactivity studies suggest that differences in chemical reactivity are in fact correlated with differences in biological response for lunar dust.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 9. Knowledge gaps and recommendations · p. 35
Studies using curated lunar samples carry with them considerable uncertainty in terms of fidelity.
“Studies using this material therefore carry with them considerable uncertainty in terms of fidelity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 36
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 92
May combine two claims.
Findingcitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 22When particle exposure occurred in microgravity, the ratio of deposition in the central lung regions compared to the peripheral lung regions was greatly reduced (0.58 ± 0.20 in microgravity; 1.06 ± 0.08 in 1 G; P < 0.05), showing that particles deposited more peripherally in microgravity.
“When the particle exposure occurred in microgravity, the ratio of deposition in the central lung regions compared to the peripheral lung regions was greatly reduced (0.58 ± 0.20 in microgravity; 1.06 ± 0.08 in 1 G; P < 0.05) showing that particles deposited more peripherally in microgravity (Darquenne et al, unpublished observations).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Darquenne et al, unpublished observations
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for efficiency of release of nanophase iron from glassy matrix is limited.
“| 6 | Efficiency of release of nanophase iron from glassy matrix | High if very efficient | Limited | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for effects of inhaled lunar dust simulant in an animal model is extrapolation from instillation of particles with an aqueous vehicle.
“| 19 | Effects of inhaled lunar dust simulant in an animal model | High | Extrapolation from instillation of particles with an aqueous vehicle | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 59The current state of knowledge for other physical properties of the smallest size fraction (morphology, dielectric constant, crystallinity) is poor.
“| 8 | Other physical properties of the smallest size fraction (morphology, dielectric constant, crystallinity) | Medium | Poorly known | Medium | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for activation of lunar dust due to proton radiation, galactic cosmic radiation, solar particle events, ultraviolet radiation, solar wind implantation, and micrometeoroid impact fragmentation is unknown.
“| 1 | Activation of lunar dust due to proton radiation, galactic cosmic radiation, solar particle events, ultraviolet radiation, solar wind implantation, and micrometeoroid impact fragmentation | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for overall mineralogy is well-known for a limited number of sites, with rough estimates available from remote sensing.
“| 7 | Overall mineralogy | High | Well-known for limited number of sites, rough estimates available from remote sensing | Medium | In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for passivation mechanism and rate after exposure of reactive lunar dust to habitat-like atmospheres is unknown.
“| 3 | Passivation mechanism and rate after exposure of reactive lunar dust to habitat-like atmospheres | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for the relation between surface active sites including those generated by radiation and micrometeoroid impact effects and adverse health effects is unknown.
“| 11 | Relation between surface active sites including those generated by radiation and micrometeoroid impact effects and adverse health effects | Very high | Unknown | Critical | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for toxicity of ilmenite is unknown.
“| 13 | Toxicity of ilmenite | Low | Unknown | Low | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 61The current state of knowledge for effects of dust-induced airway inflammation on exhaled markers other than NO is unknown.
“| 24 | Effects of dust-induced airway inflammation on exhaled markers other than NO | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based, animal and human experiments |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 61The current state of knowledge for time course of deactivation after irradiation of simulants and actual lunar material is unknown.
“| 22 | Time course of deactivation after irradiation of simulants and actual lunar material | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 61The current state of knowledge for effects of inhaled 'activated' Apollo era lunar material is unknown.
“| 21 | Effects of inhaled 'activated' Apollo era lunar material | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 59The current state of knowledge for abundance of volatile components on the lunar surface has significant uncertainties, particularly for high latitudes.
“| 9 | Abundance of volatile components on the lunar surface | Possibly high | Significant uncertainties, particularly for high latitudes | Unknown | Ground-based on pristine Apollo samples; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for rate of mucociliary clearance of particles from the lung in lunar gravity is unknown.
“| 16 | Rate of mucociliary clearance of particles from the lung in lunar gravity | High | Unknown | High | Suborbital flight |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for effects of inhaled 'activated' simulant (Proton, UV radiation) in an animal model is unknown.
“| 20 | Effects of inhaled 'activated' simulant (Proton, UV radiation) in an animal model | High | Unknown | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for size fraction variations of nanophase iron abundance is that abundance is known for selected sites and size fractions.
“| 5 | Size fraction variations of nanophase iron abundance | Very high if it becomes exposed | Abundance known for selected sites and size fractions | High | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 61The current state of knowledge for effects of combined microgravity and reduced pressure on the NO turnover in the lungs of humans is partly known from micro-gravity and altitude separately.
“| 23 | Effects of combined microgravity and reduced pressure on the NO turnover in the lungs of humans | High | Partly known from micro-gravity and altitude separately | High | Low-gravity (ISS) |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for effects of inhaled lunar dust on the cardiovascular system in disease models is unknown, based on air pollution research.
“| 17 | Effects of inhaled lunar dust on the cardiovascular system in disease models | Low | Unknown, based on air pollution research | Low | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for effects of inhaled lunar dust on the cardiovascular system in different gravitation environments is unknown.
“| 18 | Effects of inhaled lunar dust on the cardiovascular system in different gravitation environments. | Low | Unknown | Low | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for identification and evaluation of surface-derived free radical generation pathways is limited to some ground-based studies of lunar samples.
“| 2 | Identification and evaluation of surface-derived free radical generation pathways | Very high | Limited to some ground-based studies of lunar samples | Critical | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for toxicity of nanophase iron is unknown.
“| 12 | Toxicity of nanophase iron | Very high | Unknown | High | Ground-based |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for dust deposition in sustained low gravity is that deposition in transient microgravity is well-known (aircraft).
“| 14 | Dust deposition in sustained low gravity | Medium | Deposition in transient microgravity well-known (aircraft | Medium | Low-gravity (ISS) |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 58The current state of knowledge for size distribution, specific surface area of the submicron size fraction is uncertain from measurements of.
“| 4 | Size distribution, specific surface area of the submicron size fraction | High | Uncertain from measurements of | High | Ground-based; In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 60The current state of knowledge for residence time of particles that deposit in the lung in lunar gravity is currently under investigation.
“| 15 | Residence time of particles that deposit in the lung in lunar gravity | High | Currently under investigation | High | Parabolic flights |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone given§ Table 1. Knowledge gaps related to physical and chemical properties of dust in relation to potential toxicity 1380 · p. 59The current state of knowledge for aerosol generation from lunar dust during typical mission activities is medium from Apollo missions.
“| 10 | Aerosol generation from lunar dust during typical mission activities | High | Medium from Apollo missions | Medium | In situ |”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 2. Physical chemistry determinants of dust toxicity 115 · p. 7It is the surface of a particle which is in contact with fluids, cells and tissues.
“It is the surface of a particle which is in contact with fluids, cells and tissues.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 2.2. Fate of a particle in the body following inhalation · p. 8The inflammatory reaction described here may occur via other penetration routes (e.g. skin, systemic circulation).
“Note that the inflammatory reaction described here may occur via other penetration routes (e.g. skin, systemic circulation).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 2. Physical chemistry determinants of dust toxicity 115 · p. 7The same particle may act in multiple stages of the pathogenic process.
“The same particle may act in multiple stages of the pathogenic process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ Abstract · p. 3Lunar dust properties, and therefore lunar dust toxicity, may differ substantially from those of terrestrial materials such as asbestos, quartz, volcanic ashes and urban particulate matter.
“While the physical and chemical determinants of dust toxicity for materials such as asbestos, quartz, volcanic ashes and urban particulate matter have been the focus of substantial research efforts, lunar dust properties, and therefore lunar dust toxicity may differ substantially.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 2. Physical chemistry determinants of dust toxicity 115 · p. 7The particle may be modified in vivo.
“The particle may be modified in vivo .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone given§ 1. Introduction · p. 4One of the biggest challenges for human lunar exploration may be related to the presence of dust on the lunar surface.
“One of the biggest challenges may be related to the presence of dust on the lunar surface.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 2.3. Physical-chemical factors related to toxicity 190 · p. 10Well-dispersed metal ions may also be released in body fluids and tissues in addition to forming catalytic centres for free radical generation.
“In addition to forming catalytic centres for free radical generation, well-dispersed metal ions may also be released in body fluids and tissues (Castranova et al., 1997; Hardy and Aust, 1995b).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Castranova et al., 1997
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hardy and Aust, 1995b
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13Lunar soil simulants JSC-1 and JSC-1A were produced from a Arizona volcanic tuff and ash deposit.
“Lunar soil simulants JSC-1 (McKay et al., 1994) and JSC-1A (Hill et al., 2007) were produced from a Arizona volcanic tuff and ash deposit.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites McKay et al., 1994
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13Due to the presence of trivalent iron, nanoparticles of Ti-bearing magnetite are found in JSC-1A, and these have magnetic properties mimicking those of nanophase iron.
“Instead, due to the presence of trivalent iron, nanoparticles of Ti-bearing magnetite are found in JSC-1A. These have magnetic properties mimicking those of nanophase iron (Hill et al., 2007; Liu and Taylor, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Liu and Taylor, 2011
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12The proportion of nanophase iron also appears to increase with decreasing dust grain size.
“The proportion of nanophase iron also appears to increase with decreasing dust grain size.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13The glass in JSC-1A is not agglutanitic (was not formed due to flash heating during impacts) and is therefore not as friable.
“The glass in JSC-1A is not agglutanitic (was not formed due to flash heating during impacts) and is therefore not as friable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Liu and Taylor, 2011
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13The Apollo samples studied to date are of near-equatorial origin and their mineralogy and physical properties may not be representative of other areas on the lunar surface including the South Polar region and the floor of the South Pole - Aitken basin, where future landing sites are proposed.
“Finally, we note that the Apollo samples studied to date are of near-equatorial origin and their mineralogy and physical properties may not be representative of other areas on the lunar surface including the South Polar region and the floor of the South Pole - Aitken basin, where future landing sites are proposed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 2.3. Physical-chemical factors related to toxicity 190 · p. 10Association of different materials may result in new toxic entities, as shown for Indium Tin Oxide [ITO] and for the combination of cobalt and tungsten carbide.
“Association of different materials may result in new toxic entities, as shown for Indium Tin Oxide [ITO] (Lison et al., 2009) and for the combination of cobalt and tungsten carbide (Lison et al., 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12Based on the trends observed in the size fractions, Taylor and colleagues suggest that the respirable size fraction (typically considered to be < 5 μm) of lunar dust is likely dominated by impact glass and rich in metallic iron.
“Based on the trends observed in the size fractions, Taylor and colleagues suggest that the respirable size fraction (typically considered to be < 5 μ m) of lunar dust is likely dominated by impact glass and rich in metallic iron (Taylor et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13JSC-1A does not contain any ilmenite (a potentially toxic iron-titanium oxide that is present in all lunar soils); and it contains no nanophase iron.
“JSC-1A does not contain any ilmenite (a potentially toxic iron-titanium oxide that is present in all lunar soils); and it contains no nanophase iron.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Liu and Taylor, 2011
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 12Minor components of the dust include the minerals olivine and ilmenite as well as glass spherules formed in fire-fountaining volcanic eruptions on the lunar surface.
“Minor components of the dust include the minerals olivine and ilmenite as well as glass spherules formed in fire-fountaining volcanic eruptions on the lunar surface.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2001a
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2001b
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Taylor et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 13JSC-1A contains a large proportion (approximately 50 wt%) of volcanic glass, and its bulk chemical composition is similar to that of some of the Apollo 14 soils.
“The simulant contains a large proportion (approximately 50 wt%) of volcanic glass, and its bulk chemical composition is similar to that of some of the Apollo 14 soils (Hill et al., 2007), which consist mainly of impact ejecta (which is not pure mare nor pure highland material).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hill et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20The medium and large-sized airway epithelium is covered in a layer of cilia, which serves to move a mucus layer in the direction of the glottis where it is swallowed.
“The medium and large-sized airway epithelium is covered in a layer of cilia, which serves to move a mucus layer in the direction of the glottis where it is swallowed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16Lunar dust cannot be expected to show the same level of hydrophilicity as terrestrial dust due to differences in hydrogen/water abundance between Earth and the Moon.
“Lunar dust cannot be expected to show the same level of hydrophilicity as terrestrial dust due to the differences in hydrogen/water abundance between the Earth and the Moon.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15Some peculiarities of lunar dust might trigger new toxicity paths and exacerbate the classical inhaled particle effects of terrestrial dusts.
“Some peculiarities of lunar dust might trigger new toxicity paths and exacerbate the classical inhaled particle effects of terrestrial dusts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.2. Deposition in reduced gravity · p. 19The implication drawn from these studies was that alveolar deposition of smaller sized particles (0.5 and 1.0 μm) was higher than expected because of combined effects of higher alveolar concentration of particles in microgravity due to absence of removal in small airways by sedimentation, and non-reversibility of flow patterns in complicated airway geometry.
“The implication drawn from these studies was that alveolar deposition of the smaller sized particles (0.5 and 1.0 μ m) was higher than expected because of the combined effects of a higher alveolar concentration of particles in microgravity due to the absence of removal in the small airways by sedimentation, and the nonreversibility of the flow patterns in the complicated airway geometry.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1. Basic mechanisms of particle deposition · p. 17Both the site of deposition and the time for removal have the potential to affect the magnitude of the toxic effect of a given particle load delivered to the lungs.
“Both the site of deposition, and the time for removal have the potential to affect the magnitude of the toxic effect of a given particle load delivered to the lungs”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16Under these circumstances, hydrophilic sites will appear at the particle surface but full hydroxylation will not be attained unless extremely long periods of time are available.
“Under these circumstances, hydrophilic sites will appear at the particle surface but full hydroxylation will not been attained unless extremely long periods of time are available.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisereasoning§ 4.1. Basic mechanisms of particle deposition · p. 17Sedimentation is a gravity-driven process and so is altered in the lunar environment where acceleration due to gravity is only ~1/6 that on Earth's surface.
“Of these, sedimentation is a gravity-driven process and so is altered in the lunar environment where acceleration due to gravity is only ~1/6 that on the Earth's surface.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16The toxicity of ilmenite has never been considered.
“The toxicity of ilmenite - an iron titanium oxide - has never been considered”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1. Basic mechanisms of particle deposition · p. 17As a consequence of different transport mechanisms, the location in the bronchial tree where particles deposit varies, and so does the time to remove deposited particles from the lung.
“As a consequence of these different transport mechanisms, the location in the bronchial tree where particles deposit also varies, and as a result, so does the time it takes to subsequently remove the deposited particles from the lung.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21However indirect measurements strongly point to a more peripheral site of deposition in low gravity, consistent with the concept of the reduction in sedimentation permitting higher particle concentrations reaching the alveolar region, where other mechanisms of deposition (diffusion, complex mixing) dominate.
“However indirect measurements strongly point to a more peripheral site of deposition in low gravity, consistent with the concept of the reduction in sedimentation permitting higher particle concentrations reaching the alveolar region, where other mechanisms of deposition (diffusion, complex mixing) dominate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20The lungs are challenged by dusts on a continuous basis and particle deposition is an ever-present effect.
“The lungs are challenged by dusts on a continuous basis and as such particle deposition is an ever-present effect.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21The only published study of aerosol transport in lunar gravity showed that while lunar gravity reduced overall deposition, for a given deposition fraction deposition occurred much more peripherally than in 1 G.
“The only published study of aerosol transport in lunar gravity (Darquenne and Prisk, 2008) showed that while lunar gravity reduced overall deposition, for a given deposition fraction deposition occurred much more peripherally than in 1 G (Figure 7).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Darquenne and Prisk, 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15The surfaces exposed will all be generated by mechanical rupture of rocks and minerals, which causes a much higher surface reactivity hence toxicity compared to unfractured material.
“The surfaces exposed will all be generated by mechanical rupture of rocks and minerals, which causes a much higher surface reactivity (Damm and Peukert, 2009; Fenoglio et al., 2001) hence toxicity (Vallyathan et al., 1988) compared to unfractured material.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20The location of particle deposition in the airways has important implications for their potential toxic effects.
“The location of particle deposition in the airways has important implications for their potential toxic effects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 17This partial oxidation appears to be one of the causes of sustained free radical generation, hence potential toxicity in terrestrial ashes.
“This appears to be one of the causes of sustained free radical generation, hence potential toxicity (Horwell et al., 2007; Horwell et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 22At present no results are available, but the expectation is that clearance will be slower as a result of the more peripheral deposition in microgravity.
“At present no results are available, but the expectation is that clearance will be slower as a result of the more peripheral deposition in microgravity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15Vitreous materials, which are abundant on the lunar surface, have seldom been studied in terms of their toxicity.
“Vitreous materials, which are abundant on the lunar surface, have seldom been studied in terms of their toxicity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21A study in humans using magnetically-labelled particles showed that while approximately half the particles were removed from the lung with a mean residence time of 3.0 ± 1.6 hours, the remaining half of the particle burden had a mean residence time of 109 ± 78 days, greatly increasing the potential for toxic effects.
“A study in humans using magnetically-labelled particles showed that while approximately half the particles were removed from the lung with a mean residence time of 3.0 ± 1.6 hours, the remaining half of the particle burden had a mean residence time of 109 ± 78 days (Moller et al., 2004), greatly increasing the potential for toxic effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Moller et al., 2004 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16It is unknown if direct interactions between the nanophase iron and the body will occur.
“It is therefore unknown if direct interactions between the nanophase iron and the body will occur.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationcitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15The reactivity - hence toxicity - of vitreous materials might be different from either their crystalline counterparts or other amorphous forms not obtained in particulate form by mechanical stress, but by e.g. sedimentation.
“Their reactivity - hence toxicity - might be different from either their crystalline counterparts or other amorphous forms not obtained in particulate form by mechanical stress, but by e.g. sedimentation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21To date there are no published reports of human studies that provide specific information on how the site of deposition of inhaled particles is affected by altered gravity.
“To date there are no published reports of human studies that provide specific information on how the site of deposition of inhaled particles is affected by altered gravity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisereasoning§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 20The lung deals with this through clearance mechanisms.
“The lung deals with this through clearance mechanisms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 15Photoactivation, similar to what takes place with titanium dioxide, might also occur inducing the release of reactive oxygen species responsible for oxidative damage.
“Photoactivation, similar to what takes place with titanium dioxide (Fenoglio et al., 2009; Fujishima et al., 2008), might also occur inducing the release of reactive oxygen species responsible for oxidative damage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Fenoglio et al., 2009
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Fujishima et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.1. Characteristics of the lunar surface · p. 16Because of the presence of iron as well as titanium, ilmenite might have adverse effects if inhaled.
“because of the presence of iron as well as titanium it might have adverse effects if inhaled.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ 4.3. Site of deposition · p. 21The latter point is important in that it suggests that the results from previous studies performed in microgravity can be extrapolated to low-gravity, and that the mechanisms responsible for the higher than anticipated deposition are still operative in the presence of gravity.
“The latter point is important in that it suggests that the results from previous studies performed in microgravity can be extrapolated to low-gravity, and that the mechanisms responsible for the higher than anticipated deposition are still operative in the presence of gravity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30Alving et al. (1993) and Persson et al. (1994) found increased levels of exhaled NO in asthmatics with ongoing airway inflammation.
“In addition, Alving et al. (1993) and Persson et al. (1994) found increased levels of exhaled NO in asthmatics with ongoing airway inflammation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27The direct insufflation method injects study material with an air puff directly into the endotracheally intubated lung, either as a liquid spray or as a suspended dry powder formulation.
“The next step towards testing the toxicity of respirable aerosols is the direct insufflation method, where the study material is injected with an air puff directly into the endotracheally intubated lung, either as a liquid spray (Tronde et al., 2002) or as a suspended dry powder formulation (Bosquillon et al., 2004; Larsen and Regal, 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 26For diseases such as lung cancer or airway remodelling driven by chronic inflammation, most studies have been done with mice or rats either in whole-body chambers or in nose-only exposure towers.
“For diseases such as lung cancer or airway remodelling driven by chronic inflammation, most studies have been done with mice or rats either in whole-body chambers (Heinrich et al., 1995) or in nose-only exposure towers (Pauluhn, 1994, 2008; Wong, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23Low grade, chronic inflammation is believed to exacerbate cardiovascular disease.
“Low grade, chronic inflammation is believed to exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Tranfield et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tranfield et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23The dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system manifests as irregularities in heart rate, heart rhythm and blood pressure.
“The dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system manifests as irregularities in heart rate, heart rhythm and blood pressure (Peters et al., 2000; Pope et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27With modern piezoelectric nebulizers, rats can be exposed to respirable aerosols of dissolved or liquid-dispersed materials.
“With the modern piezoelectric nebulizers, rats can be exposed to respirable aerosols of dissolved or liquid-dispersed materials (MacLoughlin et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites MacLoughlin et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30The potential of NO as a marker of airway disease became apparent when Gustafsson et al. (1991) found endogenous NO in the exhalate from both animals and humans.
“The potential of NO as a marker of airway disease became apparent when Gustafsson et al. (1991) found endogenous NO in the exhalate from both animals and humans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gustafsson et al. (1991) source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 24To date little research has focused on the health effects experienced by healthy individuals exposed to air pollution.
“To date little research has focused on the health effects experienced by healthy individuals exposed to air pollution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 24Lunar dust is very different compared to terrestrial dust in terms of chemical composition, method of formation, and exposure to weathering effects and solar irradiation.
“Secondly, lunar dust is very different compared to terrestrial dust in terms of chemical composition, method of formation, and exposure to weathering effects and solar irradiation (Horanyi and Stern, 2011; Liu and Taylor, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Horanyi and Stern, 2011
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Liu and Taylor, 2011
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27Instead, dry powder inhalation is preferred.
“Instead, dry powder inhalation is preferred.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29Of these techniques only the analysis of exhaled nitric oxide is a standardized technique used in clinical practice.
“Of these techniques only the analysis of exhaled nitric oxide is a standardized technique used in clinical practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 24The site of fine dust deposition in the lungs is more peripheral and timely removal from the lungs is hypothesised to be reduced in microgravity and most probably in lunar gravity.
“Furthermore, the site of fine dust deposition in the lungs is more peripheral (Darquenne and Prisk, 2008) and timely removal from the lungs is hypothesised to be reduced in microgravity and most probably in lunar gravity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Darquenne and Prisk, 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 26Toxicity testing with particulate air pollutants has been performed extensively both for acute toxicity outcomes as well as chronic toxicity.
“Toxicity testing with particulate air pollutants has been performed extensively both for acute toxicity outcomes as well as chronic toxicity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27In the liquid instillation method, controlled volumes of dissolved or suspended materials are instilled into endotracheally intubated animals.
“In the liquid instillation method, controlled volumes of dissolved or suspended materials are instilled into endotracheally intubated animals (Saffiotti et al., 1968; Warheit et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Saffiotti et al., 1968
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Warheit et al., 2007 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30Normal exhaled NO levels are in the range of 10-35 parts per billion (ppb) in adults, and around 5-25 ppb in children.
“Normal exhaled NO levels are in the range of 10-35 parts per billion (ppb) in adults, and around 5-25 ppb in children (Taylor et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Taylor et al., 2006 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29The analysis of breath condensates is an additional non-invasive technique in which breath condensate is collected by cooling or freezing exhaled gas.
“The analysis of breath condensates is an additional non-invasive technique in which breath condensate is collected by cooling or freezing exhaled gas (Kharitonov, 2004; Kharitonov and Barnes, 2001; Patil and Long, 2010; Popov, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Kharitonov, 2004 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Kharitonov and Barnes, 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Patil and Long, 2010
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29The analysis of biomarkers in the exhaled breath would meet the requirement for non-invasive techniques.
“The analysis of biomarkers in the exhaled breath would meet such a requirement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29Some of these compounds can be used to characterize the function of the whole organism (systemic biomarkers), and some are more specifically related to the function of the respiratory system (lung biomarkers).
“Some of these compounds can be used to characterize the function of the whole organism (systemic biomarkers), and some are more specifically related to the function of the respiratory system (lung biomarkers).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27So far instillation and insufflation methods have been most common for single animal exposures with limited amounts of test material.
“So far instillation and insufflation methods have been most common for single animal exposures with limited amounts of test material.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29Assessing lung health in extreme environments, such as space flight, demands non-invasive techniques.
“Assessing lung health in extreme environments, such as space flight, demands non-invasive techniques.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 24These variables may have a greater effect on lung toxicity caused by lunar dust than cardiovascular toxicity; however, this is an area that needs to be investigated further before any scientifically sound conclusion can be drawn about how lunar dust will impact astronauts during their time on the lunar surface, and when they return to Earth.
“These variables may have a greater effect on lung toxicity caused by lunar dust than cardiovascular toxicity; however, this is an area that needs to be investigated further before any scientifically sound conclusion can be drawn about how lunar dust will impact astronauts during their time on the lunar surface, and when they return to Earth.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 5.2. Ocular and skin effects · p. 24For eye exposure, at least two scenarios are envisioned: deposition of airborne particles onto the surface of the eye, and transfer of particles from contaminated objects, such as fingers, that may touch the eye.
“For eye exposure, at least two scenarios are envisioned: deposition of airborne particles onto the surface of the eye, and transfer of particles from contaminated objects, such as fingers, that may touch the eye.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 27With some loss of dosing control, the distribution within the lung is improved with direct insufflation, but it is still quite uneven with greater deposition in larger airways compared to more peripheral lung compartments.
“With some loss of dosing control, the distribution within the lung is improved, but it is still quite uneven with greater deposition in larger airways compared to more peripheral lung compartments (Bosquillon et al., 2004; Sakagami, 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23The inflammatory mechanism is the concept that particulate material irritates the lungs which results in first a local and then a systemic inflammatory response.
“The inflammatory mechanism is the concept that particulate material irritates the lungs which results in first a local and then a systemic inflammatory response (Seaton et al., 1995; Seaton et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 24Virtually all research has focused on very young populations, as well as aging, already ill populations, and astronauts do not fit in either of these categories.
“Virtually all research has focused on very young populations, as well as aging, already ill populations, and astronauts do not fit in either of these categories.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 29Apart from atmospheric and classical metabolic gases, the exhaled breath contains a number of other gases in trace amounts, including volatile organic compounds.
“Apart from the atmospheric and classical metabolic gases, the exhaled breath contains a number of other gases in trace amounts, including volatile organic compounds.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ 5.2. Ocular and skin effects · p. 25Dermal abrasion due to lunar dust may act in combination with skin damage induced by pressure on the skin at sites of anatomical prominence, and may result in breakdown of the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin which functions as the protective barrier of the skin.
“Indeed, dermal abrasion due to lunar dust may act in combination with skin damage induced by pressure on the skin at sites of anatomical prominence (finger tips, knuckles, elbows, knees), and may result in breakdown of the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin which functions as the protective barrier of the skin (James and Khan-Mayberry, 2009; Jones et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites James and Khan-Mayberry, 2009
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Jones et al., 2007
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning§ 6. Dust inhalation in animal models · p. 26While nose-only towers require a substantially larger work effort compared to simpler whole body exposure chambers, the dosing precision is considerably better because exposure concentrations are more even, and because the animals are prevented from swallowing pelt-deposited material during grooming.
“While the nose-only towers require a substantially larger work effort compared to the simpler whole body exposure chambers, the dosing precision is considerably better because exposure concentrations are more even, and because the animals are prevented from swallowing pelt-deposited material during grooming.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 5.1. Cardiovascular effects · p. 23Astronauts currently go through an extensive screening process for the purpose of selecting only very healthy individuals.
“To begin, astronauts currently go through an extensive screening process for the purpose of selecting only very healthy individuals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30For asthma patients not adequately treated with anti-inflammatory medication, exhaled NO levels are up to 70-100 ppb and sometimes even higher.
“For asthma patients not adequately treated with anti-inflammatory medication, exhaled NO levels are up to 70-100 ppb and sometimes even higher.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30The constitutive NOS, i.e., neuronal NOS (nNOS) and endothelial NOS (eNOS), are strictly Ca2+-dependent, whereas iNOS is dependent on gene expression regulation.
“The constitutive NOS, i.e., neuronal NOS (nNOS) and endothelial NOS (eNOS), are strictly Ca 2+ -dependent, whereas iNOS is dependent on gene expression regulation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ 10. Summary · p. 36Dust toxicity is determined by the abundance, size distribution and chemical reactivity of dust particles.
“Dust toxicity is determined by the abundance, size distribution and chemical reactivity of dust particles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30Naturally occurring enzymatic processes produce NO from the amino acid L-arginine and oxygen by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS).
“Naturally occurring enzymatic processes produce NO from the amino acid Larginine and oxygen by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ 10. Summary · p. 36In situ determinations of factors such as abundance, size distribution and chemical reactivity of lunar dust particles are essential for a proper assessment of the risks for humans during future manned exploration of the Moon.
“In situ determinations of factors such as abundance, size distribution and chemical reactivity of lunar dust particles are essential for a proper assessment of the risks for humans during future manned exploration of the Moon.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ 7.3. Effects of gravity and atmospheric pressure on exhaled NO · p. 31Pulmonary NO turnover is modified in reduced ambient pressure even though exhaled NO partial pressure is not changed compared to normal ambient pressure.
“Moreover, Hemmingson et al. ((2012)) have shown that pulmonary NO turnover is modified in reduced ambient pressure even though the exhaled NO partial pressure is not changed compared to normal ambient pressure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hemmingson et al. ((2012))
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ 10. Summary · p. 36Chemical reactivity depends on the composition of dust in interaction with mechanical impacts from meteoroids and the exposure to proton and UV radiation in an environment free of oxygen and humidity.
“Chemical reactivity depends on the composition of dust in interaction with mechanical impacts from meteoroids and the exposure to proton and UV radiation in an environment free of oxygen and humidity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ 9. Knowledge gaps and recommendations · p. 35In situ data on lunar dust properties are required for the ground-based studies to quantify the toxicity of dust exposure during future manned lunar missions.
“As a consequence, in situ data on lunar dust properties are required for the ground-based studies to quantify the toxicity of dust exposure during future manned lunar missions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisereasoning§ 7.3. Effects of gravity and atmospheric pressure on exhaled NO · p. 31Atmospheric pressure in future habitats on the Moon and Mars, and in vehicles made for interplanetary space missions, is likely to be substantially lower than that on Earth due to the desire to minimise decompression times prior to extravehicular activity.
“The atmospheric pressure in future habitats on the Moon and Mars, and in vehicles made for interplanetary space missions, is likely to be substantially lower than that on Earth due to the desire to minimise decompression times prior to extravehicular activity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 34The macrophage reactivity assay used for these studies was the same as the assay used in studies of quartz that showed increased biological responses for freshly ground material versus aged.
“The macrophage reactivity assay used for these studies was the same as the assay used in studies of quartz that showed increased biological responses for freshly ground material versus aged (Porter et al., 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Porter et al., 2002 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30A similar or even larger quantity of NO is taken up by the blood because NO binds very strongly to the haemoglobin in the blood.
“A similar or even larger quantity is taken up by the blood because NO binds very strongly to the haemoglobin in the blood.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 34These findings support the concept that lunar dust toxicity is dependent on lunar dust chemical reactivity, and processes that cause mechanochemical activation contribute to this reactivity.
“These findings support the concept that lunar dust toxicity is dependent on lunar dust chemical reactivity, and processes that cause mechanochemical activation contribute to this reactivity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30Exhaled NO is now used as a diagnostic tool in the monitoring of asthma patients on Earth.
“Exhaled NO is now used as a diagnostic tool in the monitoring of asthma patients on Earth.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationcitation§ 8.2. Differences in toxicity of dust due to method of lunar dust preparation macrophage reactivity studies · p. 34In situ measurement of the chemical reactivity of lunar dust, as it actually exists on the surface of the Moon, is likely the only way of assessing the net effects of multiple processes that may affect the chemical reactivity of lunar dust.
“In situ measurement of the chemical reactivity of lunar dust, as it actually exists on the surface of the Moon, is likely the only way of assessing the net effects of multiple processes that may affect the chemical reactivity of lunar dust (Loftus et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Loftus et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ 7.1. Exhaled biomarkers 662 · p. 30There are three different known isoforms of NOS; two constitutive and one inducible (iNOS).
“There are three different known isoforms of NOS; two constitutive and one inducible (iNOS).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ 10. Summary · p. 36Limits for permissible exposure must be based on scientific evidence, which is currently highly incomplete or absent.
“Limits for permissible exposure must be based on scientific evidence, which is currently highly incomplete or absent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.
“Because none of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface”
“None of the curated lunar samples exist in a pristine state that preserves the surface reactive chemical aspects thought to be present on the lunar surface.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
JSC-1Avf mineralogical and chemical composition is similar to that of JSC-1A.
“As far as we are aware, its mineralogical and chemical composition has not been studied in detail, but is assumed to be similar to that of JSC-1A (Hill et al., 2007).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Previous work on the toxic effects of lunar material and simulants of lunar material in animal and cellular models has been made with the particles in aqueous media to avoid the large losses of precious material typical of conventional inhalation techniques.
“Previous work on the toxic effects of lunar material and simulants of lunar material in animal and cellular models has been made with the particles in aqueous media to avoid the large losses of precious material typical of conventional inhalation techniques.”
The paper relies on this without support.
New techniques are now being developed which permit more economical inhalation studies in small animals.
“New techniques are now being developed which permit more economical inhalation studies in small animals.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Previous work on animal and cellular models has not addressed the effects of dust that has been 'activated' with UV or proton radiation.
“Previous work on animal and cellular models has not addressed the effects of dust that has been 'activated' with UV or proton radiation.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Lunar dust is hypothesized to possess deleterious effects similar to other types of particulate matter given similarities in composition and size, though the shape, surface reactivity, and biopersistence of lunar dust are incompletely described.
“LD is hypothesized to possess deleterious effects similar to these other types of particulate matter given similarities in composition and size, though the aforementioned shape, surface reactivity, and biopersistence of LD are incompletely described5.”
From Overview of lunar dust toxicity risk (2022) · cites this paper as [5]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIron in the Fe0 valence state in lunar dust particles may contribute to the formation of reactive oxygen species when in contact with human tissue, though the likelihood and severity are unknown.
“In addition, iron in the Fe0 valence state (often referred to as nanophase iron) present in the particles may contribute to the formation of reactive oxygen species when in contact with human tissue, though the likelihood and severity of this possibility are unknown5–8.”
From Overview of lunar dust toxicity risk (2022) · cites this paper as [5]
Section 3.1 (pp. 12, 16–17) identifies nanophase iron in lunar dust, says its surface might contact cells and tissues, and proposes that iron-containing material could produce reactive free radicals through a Fenton-like reaction. It also says direct contact with the body is uncertain. The copy describes the iron as being in a low oxidation state but does not establish the claim’s specific Fe0 valence state. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLarge surface area and exposure to galactic and solar radiation likely increase the surface reactivity of lunar dust particles by creating dangling chemical bonds and unsatisfied electron valences.
“Their large surface area and exposure to galactic and solar radiation likely increase the surface reactivity of the particles by creating large numbers of dangling chemical bonds and unsatisfied electron valences5.”
From Overview of lunar dust toxicity risk (2022) · cites this paper as [5]
Section 3.1 (pp. 14–15) says lunar dust may have a very high surface area, that smaller particles may be more reactive, and that radiation and solar wind enrich particles in reactive sites. But it attributes dangling bonds and unsatisfied valencies specifically to mechanical impacts and abrasion, not to large surface area or radiation creating them. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNitric oxide concentrations in exhalate increase with worsening airway inflammation.
“A potentially useful supplemental approach to PFTs is to actively monitor airway inflammation via NO concentrations in exhalate, as NO increases with worsening airway inflammation5.”
From Overview of lunar dust toxicity risk (2022) · cites this paper as [5]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Figure 2 assigns step 2 to different clearance mechanisms
MinorThe main text identifies step 2 as clearance by alveolar macrophages, whereas the Figure 2 caption identifies step 2 as clearance through the mucociliary escalator and assigns macrophage clearance to step 3.
“Soon the immune system will engulf the foreign body by 171 - recruited alveolar macrophages (AMs) to clear the particle out of the lung (step 2).”
“The particle may then be cleared out of the lung either through the 1306 - mucociliary escalator (step 2) or through alveolar macrophage (AM) clearance (step 1307 - 3).”
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 167 · Cited by 95
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- IARC, 2011. A review of human carcinogens: Arsenic, Metals, Fibres and Dusts. IARC Monogr. 100c.
- Liu, 2008, Characterization of luanr dust for toxicological studies. II: Morphology and physical characteristics, Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 21
- Rask, 2012, Reactivity of Pulmonary Macrophages in Response to Intratracheally Instilled Lunar Dust
- Authors
- Linnarsson, D., Carpenter, J., Fubini, B., Gerde, P., Karlsson, L. L., Loftus, D. J., Prisk, G. K., Staufer, U., Tranfield, E. M., & van Westrenen, W.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- European Space Research and Technology Centre (NL)
- University of Turin (IT)
- Ames Research Center (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Delft University of Technology (NL)
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (DE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Planetary and Space Science
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 57-71
- ISSN
- 0032-0633 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2086737487
- Semantic Scholar
- d94c3646a8a312540f10c93d4fc381b49b68fbcd
- Cited by
- 95
- References
- 167
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Planetary and Space Science (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
- European Space Agency
- Netherlands Space Office
- Ames Research Center
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Occupational and environmental lung diseases
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Air Quality and Health Impacts
- Keywords
- lunar dust, dust toxicity, human health risk, lunar surface composition, in situ measurement, manned lunar missions, dust exposure, knowledge gaps, lunar samples
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
