The DOI matches its Crossref record; 75 of the 80 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 65 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Research policy observers are increasingly concerned about the potential impact of current academic working conditions on mental health, particularly in PhD students. The aim of the current study is threefold. First, we assess the prevalence of mental health problems in a representative sample of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium (N = 3659). Second, we compare PhD students to three other samples: (1) highly educated in the general population (N = 769); (2) highly educated employees (N = 592); and (3) higher education students (N = 333). Third, we assess those organizational factors relating to the role of PhD students that predict mental health status. Results based on 12 mental health symptoms (GHQ-12) showed that 32% of PhD students are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression. This estimate was significantly higher than those obtained in the comparison groups. Organizational policies were significantly associated with the prevalence of mental health problems. Especially work-family interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor’s leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a representative Flemish sample of 3,659 PhD students, 32% screened at GHQ4+ for risk of a common psychiatric disorder, and 51% reported at least two GHQ-12 symptoms. Mental health problems were more prevalent than in three comparison groups and were linked to work-family conflict, job demands and control, supervisor leadership, team decision-making, and career perceptions.
Key findings
- Prevalence among PhD students was 51% for GHQ2+, 40% for GHQ3+, and 32% for GHQ4+. The most common symptoms included constant strain, unhappiness/depression, sleep loss from worry, difficulty overcoming problems, and reduced enjoyment of daily activities.
- Compared with the highly educated general population, PhD students had adjusted risk ratios of 1.90 for GHQ2+, 2.26 for GHQ3+, and 2.43 for GHQ4+. Compared with highly educated employees, the corresponding ratios were 2.02, 2.56, and 2.84; compared with higher education students, they were 1.53, 1.63, and 1.85.
- Work-family conflict was the strongest predictor in relative-weight terms (34.1% for GHQ2+ and 29.8% for GHQ4+). Job demands had ORs of 1.896 for GHQ2+ and 1.651 for GHQ4+; job control had ORs of 0.784 and 0.631; family-work conflict had ORs of 1.206 and 1.296; work-family conflict had ORs of 1.521 and 1.522.
- Inspirational supervisor leadership was associated with lower odds (OR 0.868 for GHQ2+, 0.908 for GHQ4+), laissez-faire leadership with higher distress odds (OR 1.084 for GHQ2+), and closed team decision-making with higher GHQ4+ odds (OR 1.205). No discipline differences were found; executing-phase students had lower odds than initiating-phase students, and positive career perceptions inside or outside academia were associated with better mental health.
Methods
- Cross-sectional 2013 web survey of junior researchers at all Flemish universities; the analytic sample was 3,659 PhD students from a total population of 12,191, with a 33% response rate. Selective non-response analyses showed slightly more women, younger respondents, social scientists, and Belgians than in the total population.
- Comparison groups came from Belgian Health Interview Surveys: highly educated general population (N = 769), highly educated employees (N = 592), and higher education students (N = 333, pooled across 2001, 2004, 2008, and 2013).
- Mental health was measured with the GHQ-12 using GHQ2+, GHQ3+, and GHQ4+ thresholds. Analyses included adjusted risk ratios controlling for age and gender, and logistic regressions producing odds ratios, relative weights, and Nagelkerke R² values (0.202 for GHQ2+ and 0.204 for GHQ4+), with controls for gender, age, partner, and children.
Limitations
- The paper states that the cross-sectional design prevents causal conclusions, including possible self-selection or the alternative that distressed PhD students evaluate their environment more negatively.
- The paper also states that findings may be specific to Flanders, that financial conditions differ from countries where PhD students face more financial worries, and that GHQ4+ is a probabilistic screening measure rather than a clinical diagnosis.
- Evident from the text: the 33% response rate and selective non-response may affect prevalence estimates; all mental health measures are self-reported; and the higher education student comparison group was pooled across multiple survey years.
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Claims the paper makes
4 of 65 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites De Lange et al., 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Correlational analyses section reports that higher job demands predicted increases in both depression and emotional exhaustion over time. The paper therefore supports the link, but its findings do not establish the claim that studies report it almost unanimously; the Introduction describes mixed support for the broader high-strain hypothesis. The supplied passages give no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Low support at work has long been found to affect levels of anxiety, emotional exhaustion, job tension and job satisfaction (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites De Lange et al., 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Correlational analyses section (page unavailable) reports that greater supervisor support was associated with lower emotional exhaustion over time. It does not report that support affected anxiety or job tension; for job satisfaction, the reported direction runs from satisfaction to later supervisor support, not the reverse. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This estimate was significantly higher than those obtained in the comparison groups.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
- Rests on an assumption: The comparison groups (highly educated general population, highly educated employees, higher education students) are comparable to PhD students for the purpose of comparing mental health prevalence.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Organizational policies were significantly associated with the prevalence of mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 45
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites De Lange et al., 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) says studies of high-strain jobs have yielded mixed support for adverse health effects, but it does not say most studies find significant effects or isolate low job control from high demands and low support. The Correlational analyses section (page unavailable) links greater job control to greater subsequent job satisfaction, not to lower depression or emotional exhaustion. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“As prior research has shown that both employment frustration (not finding the work one wants) and reward frustration (e.g.poor promotion prospects) have an impact on self-reported mental health (e.g.Castro et al., 2010), the current study will also examine the career prospects of PhD students.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Castro et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion report an association between employment frustration and lower self-rated mental health among Asian immigrants. The Measures and Limitations sections show that promotion prospects were not measured separately as “reward frustration”; the paper also says its cross-sectional data cannot establish a causal impact. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results based on 12 mental health symptoms (GHQ-12) showed that 32% of PhD students are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Fig. 1, the number of faculty in Flanders has only marginally increased over the past 15 years, leading to an increased ratio of 3.2 PhD students per faculty member in 2014.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.1. PhD students in Flanders, Belgium
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The association with GHQ4+ was in the same direction, but not statistically significant.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most important was work-family conflict (% RW = 34.1% and 29.8% for GHQ2+ and GHQ4+, respectively), and this was more important than family-work conflict (% RW = 10.2% and 12.2% for GHQ2+ and GHQ4+, respectively).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The value of the Nagelkerke R2 (pseudo R2) was 0.202 for the GHQ2+ and 0.204 for the GHQ4+, which were reasonable effect sizes for psychological research in the workplace (Bosco et al., 2015;Landry et al., 2006).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most prevalent are feelings of being under constant strain, unhappiness and depression, sleeping problems due to worries, inability to overcome difficulties and not being able to enjoy day-to-day activities.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.2. Summary of main findings
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The analyses revealed significant relationships with psychological distress (GHQ2+) and with the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (GHQ4+) in case of high job demands and low job control.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comparing PhD students with higher education students, we observed that differences in mental health were smaller than for the other comparison groups, but the prevalence remained higher in PhD students.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other studies, especially European and Australian ones, have tended to utilize samples of university employees in general and mostly reported aggregate findings (Kinman, 2008), making it difficult to draw fine-grained conclusions on the mental health of PhD students as a separate category.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Differences
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kinman, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Second, the number of published studies focusing on mental health of PhD students is limited (El-Ghoroury et al., 2012), as most studies have focused on the undergraduate level (Peluso et al., 2011).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Differences
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the current lack of an empirical basis for mental health concerns and solutions, the current study has three aims.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 1.2. Why is the mental health of PhD students important for research policy?
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The most widely used measurement instrument in occupational health research, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), enables researchers to tap into both psychological distress and depression (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > Differences
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Goldberg, 1972
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Goldberg and Williams, 1988
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Several studies have found evidence for the role of task and relational conflict on employee well-being (e.g.Martinez-Corts et al., 2015).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Martinez-Corts et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Job demands and job control were assessed using the Dutch VBBA-quality of labor questionnaire (Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.2. Work context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source
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In the paper
“Flanders has seen a rise in PhD production that is substantially larger than in other EU countries: in the academic year 2013-2014, a total of 1724 new doctorates were awarded, which is an increase of 71% compared to 2004-2005(ECOOM, 2015)).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.1. PhD students in Flanders, Belgium
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites ECOOM, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Internal consistency was 0.85 for the job demands scale and 0.88 for the job control scale.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.2. Work context
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In the paper
“In their cross discipline study in nine US research universities, Fox et al. (2011) show that it is important to consider both the conflict of work with family life and the conflict of family life with work.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fox et al., 2011 source
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In the paper
“In a Finnish study of 383 PhD students, Stubb et al. (2011) found that 44% reported the academic community as a source of empowerment, enthusiasm and inspiration, while 56% experienced it as a source of burden.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stubb et al. (2011) source
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In the paper
“The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.1. Mental health problems Mental health problems were measured using the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2. The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3. GHQ items explore the respondent's experience in recent weeks compared to his or her usual experience.Response categories are item-specific but all responses are given on 4-point Likert-type scales.We adopt the GHQ scoring method, which uses a bimodal 0-0-1-1 scheme (to score subsequent response categories), conceiving the respondent's total number of 1 scores over the 12 items as an indication of the number of symptoms experienced.In order to determine that a person has a mental health problem, (s)he should experience a minimum number of symptoms.The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).In the current study we opt for the GHQ2+ (presence of at least 2 symptoms), indicating psychological distress.We also assess the GHQ4+ (presence of at least 4 symptoms), indicating the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (especially depression) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).In Sample 1, the mean GHQ score is 2.84.However, for reasons of comparison with other studies on mental health in the university sector (see Table 2), we also include the GHQ3+ (presence of at least 3 symptoms) when calculating prevalence. Preliminary multigroup confirmatory factor analyses across both samples in our study attested to the stability of the measurement model underlying the GHQ.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McDowell, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were 4069 participants (response rate of 33%).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.1. Sample 1: PhD students
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 4,069Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cronbach's alphas were 0.93, 0.78 and 0.74 for the three leadership styles, respectively.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.2. Work context
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Preliminary analyses showed that pooling of HIS data over years was warranted as year of survey administration had no impact on mental health outcomes.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.2. Sample 2: comparison groups
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.1. Mental health problems Mental health problems were measured using the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2. The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3. GHQ items explore the respondent's experience in recent weeks compared to his or her usual experience.Response categories are item-specific but all responses are given on 4-point Likert-type scales.We adopt the GHQ scoring method, which uses a bimodal 0-0-1-1 scheme (to score subsequent response categories), conceiving the respondent's total number of 1 scores over the 12 items as an indication of the number of symptoms experienced.In order to determine that a person has a mental health problem, (s)he should experience a minimum number of symptoms.The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).In the current study we opt for the GHQ2+ (presence of at least 2 symptoms), indicating psychological distress.We also assess the GHQ4+ (presence of at least 4 symptoms), indicating the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (especially depression) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).In Sample 1, the mean GHQ score is 2.84.However, for reasons of comparison with other studies on mental health in the university sector (see Table 2), we also include the GHQ3+ (presence of at least 3 symptoms) when calculating prevalence. Preliminary multigroup confirmatory factor analyses across both samples in our study attested to the stability of the measurement model underlying the GHQ.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, with the exception of Post et al. (2009), few studies among academics have addressed work-family conflict bi-directionally.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Post et al., 2009 source
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“A lack of social support has been identified as a major source of occupational stress in university staff (Gillespie et al., 2001;Biron et al., 2008).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Workers' participation in decision making has often been shown to reduce job-related emotional strain, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism and turnover intentions (e.g.Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Team conflict was assessed using Jehn's (1995) Intragroup Conflict scale.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.3. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jehn, 1995 source
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“According to Kinman (2001), the social interaction patterns between university staff have shifted from a culture of collegiality to a bureaucratic culture and a management style in which consultation and participation in decision making are given less importance (see also Biron et al., 2008).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As the supplyside of PhD production steadily increases, and the demand-side of tenure track positions remains largely unaltered (see Fig. 1), more and more students turn to the nonacademic labor market after obtaining their PhD, often regarding this as a second-choice option (Van Damme, 2014).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.1. Work context Work roles and workload demands, job control, support by peers or supervisors, and job insecurity are the most frequently examined characteristics of the work context (e.g.WHO, 2010).Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).While PhD students clearly have different roles, tasks and responsibilities to fulfill than regular employees do, we believe that there are a series of common psychological characteristics that make it useful to study PhD students' roles through the lens of the organizational context in which they perform their study and research work.For reasons of clarity, we use the commonly accepted terminology in occupational health psychology, with the clear understanding that work-related aspects, such as job demands, refer to the demands experienced by students in their specific study and research roles.Job demands are those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort.Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011). For PhD students, the balance between demands and control might be different across scientific disciplines as it entails differences in academic practice.Writing a doctoral dissertation in the natural sciences may entail working as part of a large team within a specific well-defined project, and operating with pre-defined, transparent quantitative publication criteria (Larivière, 2012).For PhD students in the humanities and social sciences, establishing one's own research idea (and thus often working in isolation) may constitute more of a challenge in terms of perseverance, given also the lack of consensus over the quality criteria in these fields (Long and Fox, 1995).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Van Damme, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to the WHO (2010), the interplay between work and home is also a significant potential source of stress impacting mental health, particularly for dual career couples and those experiencing financial difficulties or life crises.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites WHO (2010)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These surveys are periodically organized in Belgium by the Scientific Institute of Public Health and follow a similar research design and procedures as for Sample 1.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.2. Sample 2: comparison groups
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites HIS, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.1. Mental health problems Mental health problems were measured using the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2. The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3. GHQ items explore the respondent's experience in recent weeks compared to his or her usual experience.Response categories are item-specific but all responses are given on 4-point Likert-type scales.We adopt the GHQ scoring method, which uses a bimodal 0-0-1-1 scheme (to score subsequent response categories), conceiving the respondent's total number of 1 scores over the 12 items as an indication of the number of symptoms experienced.In order to determine that a person has a mental health problem, (s)he should experience a minimum number of symptoms.The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).In the current study we opt for the GHQ2+ (presence of at least 2 symptoms), indicating psychological distress.We also assess the GHQ4+ (presence of at least 4 symptoms), indicating the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (especially depression) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).In Sample 1, the mean GHQ score is 2.84.However, for reasons of comparison with other studies on mental health in the university sector (see Table 2), we also include the GHQ3+ (presence of at least 3 symptoms) when calculating prevalence. Preliminary multigroup confirmatory factor analyses across both samples in our study attested to the stability of the measurement model underlying the GHQ.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Boyd et al., 2011 source
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“As in other settings, work-home conflict in the university sector has also shown particularly strong relations with psychological distress (Kinman and Jones, 2003;Kinman et al., 2006).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.1. Mental health problems Mental health problems were measured using the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2. The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3. GHQ items explore the respondent's experience in recent weeks compared to his or her usual experience.Response categories are item-specific but all responses are given on 4-point Likert-type scales.We adopt the GHQ scoring method, which uses a bimodal 0-0-1-1 scheme (to score subsequent response categories), conceiving the respondent's total number of 1 scores over the 12 items as an indication of the number of symptoms experienced.In order to determine that a person has a mental health problem, (s)he should experience a minimum number of symptoms.The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).In the current study we opt for the GHQ2+ (presence of at least 2 symptoms), indicating psychological distress.We also assess the GHQ4+ (presence of at least 4 symptoms), indicating the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (especially depression) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).In Sample 1, the mean GHQ score is 2.84.However, for reasons of comparison with other studies on mental health in the university sector (see Table 2), we also include the GHQ3+ (presence of at least 3 symptoms) when calculating prevalence. Preliminary multigroup confirmatory factor analyses across both samples in our study attested to the stability of the measurement model underlying the GHQ.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Goldberg et al., 1998 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Selective non-response analyses showed a slightly higher proportion of females, respondents in the youngest age categories, social scientists and Belgians compared to the total population.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.1. Sample 1: PhD students
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Inspirational leadership style, autocratic leadership style, and 'laissez-faire' or passive leadership style were measured using 11, 6 and 4 items respectively (de Hoogh et al., 2004).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.2. Work context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites de Hoogh et al., 2004 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.1. Mental health problems Mental health problems were measured using the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2. The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3. GHQ items explore the respondent's experience in recent weeks compared to his or her usual experience.Response categories are item-specific but all responses are given on 4-point Likert-type scales.We adopt the GHQ scoring method, which uses a bimodal 0-0-1-1 scheme (to score subsequent response categories), conceiving the respondent's total number of 1 scores over the 12 items as an indication of the number of symptoms experienced.In order to determine that a person has a mental health problem, (s)he should experience a minimum number of symptoms.The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).In the current study we opt for the GHQ2+ (presence of at least 2 symptoms), indicating psychological distress.We also assess the GHQ4+ (presence of at least 4 symptoms), indicating the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (especially depression) (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).In Sample 1, the mean GHQ score is 2.84.However, for reasons of comparison with other studies on mental health in the university sector (see Table 2), we also include the GHQ3+ (presence of at least 3 symptoms) when calculating prevalence. Preliminary multigroup confirmatory factor analyses across both samples in our study attested to the stability of the measurement model underlying the GHQ.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Goldberg et al., 1997 source
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Prior research in the university sector has shown that work-life interference is high (e.g.Gmelch et al., 1984;Kinman and Jones, 2003;Fox et al., 2011;Sun et al., 2011)”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 2.3.2. Organizational context
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 5 reports the findings of analyses examining whether characteristics of the work and organizational context of PhD students in Flanders were associated with their mental health, while controlling for sociodemographic characteristics.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 4. Results
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In the paper
“Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.92.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.3. Organizational context
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A higher number of PhD students for each advisor could imply that faculty may find it more difficult to invest sufficient time and attention in each PhD student.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In contrast, governmental research policies that allow advisors to invest in developing an inspirational influence towards their PhD students could buffer against stress (LePine et al., 2016).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites LePine et al., 2016 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adjusted RR statistically corrects for age and gender differences across samples.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.4. Analytical strategy
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Stephan and Levin (2001) have shown that such a situation not only impacts mental health, but weakens the implicit psychological contract between PhD students and the research team in which they are doing their research, thus directly affecting research performance.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stephan and Levin (2001) source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analyses suggest that universities will benefit in terms of PhD students' mental health when they facilitate management of work-family balance and workload, design open decision-making procedures, and help PhD supervisors to adopt leadership styles that lead to satisfactory and constructive work relations.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Studies in other countries have shown that financial worries and debts are one of the major stressors experienced by those working towards a PhD (Biron et al., 2008;El-Ghoroury et al., 2012).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The GHQ4+ is a probabilistic measurement for psychiatric caseness, and advises medical attention to be sought for the reported problems (McDowell, 2006).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McDowell, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, given the international orientation of the academic work environment, with high mobility of researchers across countries, we would expect that research organization factors rapidly spread across the globe, thus making the PhD experience in all probability comparable across countries.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the vast number of studies examining causal links between organizational factors and the onset of mental health problems in occupational health research in other settings suggests that the work environment is at least partially responsible for the prevalence of mental health problems observed in the current study.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, an increase in the number of PhD students versus stability in the number of faculty positions may give graduating PhD students bleak career prospects, in which supply exceeds demand for professionals with a PhD.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Work-life interface was measured using the two widely adopted scales of family-work conflict (5 items) and work-family conflict (5 items) developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.3. Organizational context
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Netemeyer et al., 1996 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cronbach's alpha was 0.91 for the life-work conflict scale and 0.93 for the work-life conflict scale.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 3.3.3. Organizational context
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings also suggest that universities might benefit from offering PhD students clear and full information on job expectations and career prospects, both in and outside academia.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“For instance, a gradual increase in governmental research investments in the number of PhD scholarships and financial incentives for universities to increase the number of PhDs could have unforeseen side effects (see Fig. 1).”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.4. Policy implications
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fig. 1
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As financial worries and debts are probably not a crucial issue for PhD students in Flanders, if anything, we would expect that the prevalence of mental health problems is even higher in those countries where PhD candidates have more financial difficulties.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourth, our study extends previous research on mental health in the sector by considering work-life conflict bi-directionally and by adding data on future career prospects to a series of well-known organizational stressors found in the work environment.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.1. Contributions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It could be that our findings are idiosyncratic to the Flemish academic landscape.”
§ Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students > 5.3. Limitations and alternative explanations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
“a representative sample of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium (N = 3659)”
The paper relies on this without support.
The comparison groups (highly educated general population, highly educated employees, higher education students) are comparable to PhD students for the purpose of comparing mental health prevalence.
“we compare PhD students to three other samples: (1) highly educated in the general population (N = 769); (2) highly educated employees (N = 592); and (3) higher education students (N = 333).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Official registration of both staff and student mental health problems by universities is relatively low.
“Official registration of both staff and student mental health problems (e.g.depression, anxiety, burnout or emotional exhaustion) by universities is relatively low, which seems to be in stark contrast with the picture painted in media reports.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Previous research on well-being and mental health in academia has usually been restricted to one specific discipline or university.
“Previous research on well-being and mental health in academia has usually been restricted to one specific discipline or university.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.
“Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The diagnosis as to whether an individual actually has a clinically significant disorder must be assessed by psychiatric interview.
“The diagnosis as to whether an individual actually has a clinically significant disorder must be assessed by psychiatric interview.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the long run, mental health problems in PhD students will impact on research itself.
“In the long run, however, it will also impact on research itself.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Burnout among trainees is characterized by persistent mental exhaustion, a diminished sense of personal accomplishment, significant financial strain, and pervasive uncertainty about long‐term career viability [3].”
From Bridging the Gap Between Training and Reality: A Dental Scientist Trainee Perspective (2026) · cites this paper as [3]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers share many of these challenges, though some stressors may be more pronounced in doctoral students (for example, supervisor dependency, thesis progress pressure, financial strain and impostor feelings)2,13,14”
From Prevalence and severity of mental health problems in early-career researchers: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“ECRs cite a range of structural and individual stressors, such as short-term employment contracts and related job insecurity, high competition, perceived isolation, feeling like an impostor, lack of feedback and power abuse as contributors to poor mental health12–18.”
From Prevalence and severity of mental health problems in early-career researchers: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“More specifically, an inspirational leadership was negatively associated with psychological distress and risk of experiencing a common psychiatric disorder (i.e., anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, and somatic symptoms), whereas a laissez-faire leadership style was positively associated with psychological distress.”
From The supervisory relationship as a predictor of mental health outcomes in doctoral students in the United Kingdom (2024) · cites this paper as Levecque et al. (2017)
In the citing paper
“They found that doctoral students were significantly more likely to be at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, with a particularly high risk for depression.”
From The supervisory relationship as a predictor of mental health outcomes in doctoral students in the United Kingdom (2024) · cites this paper as Levecque et al. (2017)
In the citing paper
“The doctorate process has been implicated in the onset and exacerbation of mental health problems and reduction of wellbeing (Berry et al., 2020; Friedrich et al., 2023; Levecque et al., 2017).”
From The supervisory relationship as a predictor of mental health outcomes in doctoral students in the United Kingdom (2024) · cites this paper as Levecque et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“Levecque et al. (2017), for example, have suggested strong links between a lack of the leadership supervisory style and mental health issues in doctoral students.”
From The supervisory relationship as a predictor of mental health outcomes in doctoral students in the United Kingdom (2024) · cites this paper as Levecque et al., 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
GHQ items are assigned to the wrong table
MinorThe text says Table 3 presents the 12 GHQ items, but Table 3 reports PhD-student characteristics. The GHQ symptom rows appear in Table 4.
“The 12 GHQ items are presented in Table 3.”
“Table: 3 Table 3 Characteristics of PhD students, Flanders 2013 (N = 3659): percentage (%), mean (M), standard deviation (SD), minimum-maximum (Min-Max).”
The reported GHQ4+ range omits a higher value in Table 2
MinorThe text gives 41.8% as the upper end of the UK GHQ4+ results, but Table 2 also reports 43.4% for a UK academic sample.
“As for the GHQ4+, results from the U.K. vary from 31.8% in a study of lecturers and senior lecturers (McClenahan et al., 2007) to 41.8% in academic employees (Kinman and Jones, 2008).”
“Kinman (2008) Work stressors, health and sense of coherence in UK academic employees UK academics Cross-sectional study.Random sample of 1000 UK academic employees working full time 465 47% 59% male Mean age 46y / / 43.4%”
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“Job control on the other hand, refers to control over the work environment, more specifically over the pace of work, the timing of breaks, or the use of skills (Karasek and Theorell, 1990).”
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“The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).”
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“Given the compelling evidence for the effects of mental health problems on individuals’ research output (Danna and Griffin, 1999), it is to be expected that a sizable cohort of PhD students suffering from mental health problems may affect the overall quality and quantity of individuals’ research output.”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
5 of the 80 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 1,170
Stress in doctoral supervision: A perspective on supervisors
Padyab, A. M., & Lundgren, M. (2023) · Journal of Praxis in Higher Education · doi:10.47989/kpdc307 · Cited by 4
“Most studies, however, have focused on stress from a doctoral researcher’s perspective (Angervall & Silfver, 2019; Burford, 2018; Eliasson, 2019; Levecque et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPrado, A. D. S., Kohls, E., Baldofski, S., Rummel‐Kluge, C., & Freitas, J. D. L. (2023) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/44887 · Cited by 3
“Relationship problems with advisors were also related to the development of depressive symptoms among graduate students [99].”
BackgroundInfluentialBork, S., Mondisa, J., & Young, N. T. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--41183 · Cited by 3
Peuter, S. D., Dierickx, K., Meganck, M., Lerouge, I., Vandevelde, W., & Storms, G. (2024) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2024.2318245 · Cited by 3
“Given the high rate of mental health problems among PhD students (Levecque et al. 2017; Satinsky et al. 2021) and given that social support through positive relationships has been identified as a protective factor against depressive symptoms in PhD students (Charles, Karnaze, and Leslie 2022), this…”
Qualitative Pilot Interventions for the Enhancement of Mental Health Support in Doctoral Students
Casey, C., Trenoweth, S., Harvey, O., Helstrip, J., Knight, F., Taylor, J., & Polkinghorne, M. (2024) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych6010025 · Cited by 3
“Poor mental health has been identified as a central issue for doctoral students in the United Kingdom (UK) [1,2], Europe [3], and internationally [4].”
Backgroundnarrative research of experiences of STEM teachers pursuing doctoral degree
Abrigo, J. N. F., Abrogena, A. A. A., Alcantara, D. R. E., Gracia, N. A. V. D., Juliano, A. C., & Ador, Z. I. (2024) · Journal of Social Humanity and Education · doi:10.35912/jshe.v4i3.1567 · Cited by 6
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Doctoral training to support sustainable soil geochemistry research in Africa
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“Over 30% of PhD students in Belgium, a developed country, were reported to be at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression [81].”
Why Mental Health Literacy Can Improve STEM
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Stress Among Research Scholars: Causes, Coping Strategies and Implications for Policy Reform
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“9 Not only the government but also the institute is responsible for making and implementing strict policies that focus on improving the overall well-being of research scholars.”
InfluentialBertello, A. (2025) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2023.0596 · Cited by 5
80 years education of aerospace science and technology in Tsinghua University
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Peer mentoring: A move towards addressing inequality between PhD students
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Wax On, Wax Off: Maintaining Confidence and Overcoming Anxiety
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Studying Primates: How to Design, Conduct and Report Primatological Research
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“Postgraduate study can be very intense, and students often report poor health and wellbeing throughout the course of their research (Levecque et al., 2017).”
BackgroundExamining physicists� perspectives of career viability and knowledge of impairment
Oleynik, D. P., Scanlon, E. M., & Chini, J. J. (2021) · Physics Education Research Conference (PERC) · doi:10.1119/perc.2021.pr.oleynik · Cited by 3
“Similarly, participants who responded that researcher, engineer, and data analyst careers were more viable for autistic individuals may have been relying on depictions of autistic individuals as more interested in science, numbers, and tinkering than neurotypical individuals [14].”
BackgroundInfluentialOpportunities for the implementation of career lift technology in higher educational institutions
Pesha, A. V. (2022) · Science for Education Today · doi:10.15293/2658-6762.2204.07 · Cited by 3
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“Multiple studies have shown a relationship between one’s academic discipline and one’s reported mental health; not only are there differing norms per discipline, there are differing cultures in each field that can influence one’s attitudes towards mental health, such as the expectations towards collaborative work or h…”
BackgroundTen tips for teaching research integrity to early career students: A perspective over 20 years
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“Organisational factors relate to the provision of a safe working environment for HDR cohorts, a collegial productive relationship with the candidate ’ s supervisor, and the culture and work environment (Levecque et al., 2017).”
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A longitudinal study of mental wellbeing in students that transition into PhD studyPreprint
Scarf, D., Winter, T. J., Riordan, B. C., Hunter, J., Tustin, K., Gollop, M., Taylor, N. J., Kokaua, J., & Poulton, R. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/eq6xg · Cited by 2
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PHD and Childbearing? - Work-life Balance of Female PHD Students in the Field of Engineering
Paksi, V. M. (2022) · CUB Ph.D. Dissertations (Corvinus University of Budapest) · doi:10.14267/phd.2022032 · Cited by 3
Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental healthPreprint
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SF Pop Art Diary: Of Love and Wonder in the AirPreprint
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“Christian and Muslim students immigrating from South Asia to the US may have greater issues with adjustment (see also Levecque et al., 2017; Yu & Moskal, 2019) that may require more culturally appropriate and intensive interventions.”
BackgroundUnited we stand, divided we fall. A co-authorship analysis of management scholars in Italy
Capone, F., & Lazzeretti, L. (2023) · Sinergie Italian Journal of Management · doi:10.7433/s121.2023.04 · Cited by 2
Stress Training in the Classroom: Evidence of Learning Transfer and Psychological Gains
Flinchbaugh, C. L., Moore, W., & Gandhi, S. (2023) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/10525629231210532 · Cited by 3
“…management in higher education, scholars find in distinct university samples that one third of first-year college students report high levels of interpersonal and academic stress (Acharya et al., 2018), and 51% of graduate students report experiencing psychological distress (Levecque et al., 2017).”
BackgroundTraversing The Doctorate: Which Little Piggy Are You?
Carter, S. (2024) · The Ethnographic Edge · doi:10.24135/ee.v7i2.279 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, one in every two university students engaged in a doctoral study reports psychological distress that impacts their wellbeing (Levecque et al., 2017).”
InfluentialGarcía, I. M., Martínez, J. G., Cano‐García, F. J., & Witte, H. D. (2025) · International journal of doctoral studies · doi:10.28945/5413 · Cited by 10
Pot, Pinterest, and Pokémon: The Escapist Lives of Doctoral Students
Szelényi, K., Bennett, L. Y., Vincent, J., Lantas, K. A., Astacio, C., & Jaeger, A. J. (2025) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-025-09800-5 · Cited by 2
“…these varying spheres of doctoral students’ responsibilities bring pressures arising from the amount and structure of the work, along with human relationships with faculty, peers, supervisees, and supervisors, which can result in significant strain (Levecque et al., 2017; Rummell, 2015).”
Becoming infrastructured: international graduate researchers and precarious housing
Martino, E., Li, A., & Bentley, R. (2025) · International Journal of Housing Policy · doi:10.1080/19491247.2025.2515543 · Cited by 2
Rußmann, M., Netz, N., & Schwabe, U. (2025) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-025-03648-0 · Cited by 3
Menon, R. B., Menon, P. B., Avadhani, V. D., Priyadarshini, K., Subha, M. V., & Chennelleri, H. U. (2025) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-025-02341-1 · Cited by 3
“The academic working conditions possess a huge influence on the emotional feelings of students which ultimately results in psychiatric illness, mainly depression (Levecque et al. 2017).”
Moharrer, G., Rajendran, K., Pinto, R., & Kleinsmith, A. (2025) · INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MULTIMODAL INTERACTION · doi:10.1145/3716553.3750798 · Cited by 2
“Graduate students are a population at high risk of mental health issues as they face more struggles with work-life balance, mentorship quality, and research and job demands [17, 26, 38].”
Zhou, Y., Hou, J., Liu, C.-L., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe15110227 · Cited by 2
Impact of Perceived Human Resource Practices on Academics' Mental Health: A Conceptual Framework
Jerjawi, K. A., Dadich, A., & Samad, A. (2025) · Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.1111/1744-7941.70044 · Cited by 3
Desservettaz, M., Ramacher, M. O. P., Andersen, S. T., Barbosa, C. G. G., Diez, S., Bryant, H. N., Hamilton, T., Schneider, S., Vohra, K., Li, Y., et al. (2025) · Elementa Science of the Anthropocene · doi:10.1525/elementa.2025.00064 · Cited by 2
The Development and Psychometric Properties of a Doctoral Student Agency Scale
Huang, L., Ruan, Q., & Wang, K. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15121715 · Cited by 4
“Given the high levels of stress and anxiety commonly reported among doctoral students (Levecque et al., 2017), self-management—particularly the regulation of physical and mental states—constitutes an essential agentic resource for sustaining an academic career in highly competitive environments…”
Petruzziello, G., Paganin, G., Aquino, A., de Sio, S., Tomei, G., & Toscano, F. (2026) · Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management · doi:10.1080/1360080x.2026.2614789 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, work-life interference limits recovery opportunities, leaving PhD Students with fewer resources to cope with stress (Levecque et al., 2017; Solms et al., 2025).”
InfluentialQian, M., Xu, Z., & Yan, C. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16020217 · Cited by 4
“Research shows that as many as one-third to one-half of graduate students report symptoms of depression, anxiety, or professional burnout during their training period (Satinsky et al., 2021; Evans et al., 2018; Levecque et al., 2017).”
Han, J., Powers, T. E., Waldhuber, M., Short, J., & Swiecki, Z. (2026) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2026.2615301 · Cited by 2
“…such as research workload and cognitive strain (Devine & Hunter, 2017) and mental health issues (Evans et al., 2018; Hazell et al., 2020; Lai, 2019; Levecque et al., 2017); as well as the positives that buffer these effects, such as positive reinforcement from peers (Busch et al., 2024; Han et…”
Adeeb, M. A., Ghani, M. A., Hillaluddin, A. H., & Flesia, L. (2026) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe16020025 · Cited by 4
“Recent evidence shows that university students report poorer mental health than their non-university peers, with increasing severity over time due to pandemic-related and socio-cultural stressors (Blanco et al., 2008; Chen & Lucock, 2022; Levecque et al., 2017).”
Syharat, C. M., & Zaghi, A. E. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1769327 · Cited by 3
“…are characterized by multiple factors such as intense pressure to publish, unclear expectations, and imbalanced power dynamics that may disproportionately impact neurodiverse students experiences (Levecque et al., 2017; Mackie and Bates, 2019; Satterfield et al., 2018; Wyatt and Oswalt, 2013).”
Parkhouse, A. R., House, P., Tsegah, D., & Ghosh, C. (2026) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2026.103424 · Cited by 2
“Consistent with prior research, participants identified academic culture and academic role obligations as impactful sources of stress; policy and financial uncertainty further exacerbate stressor burden (Evans et al., 2018; Levecque et al., 2017).”
Who Am I Now?: The Doctorate as a Process of Transformative Learning
O’Brien, C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18199-4_18 · Cited by 2
Blair, S. A., Brockmann, A. N., Arroyo, K. M., Carpenter, C. A., & Ross, K. M. (2022) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/34102 · Cited by 4
“Graduate students represent a particularly vulnerable population, with data indicating greater risk of depression and anxiety compared with the general population [5,6].”
BackgroundTranslating Social Science Skill Sets for Careers Beyond Academia
Sorurbakhsh, L. (2022) · Practicing Anthropology · doi:10.17730/0888-4552.44.3.48 · Cited by 2
Andrysiak, C., Mizock, L. M., Webber, L., & Kranzberg, M. B. (2022) · Journal of Women and Gender in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/26379112.2022.2134142 · Cited by 2
“The increased levels of stress experienced by graduate students often contribute to difficulties with mental or physical health (Levecque et al., 2017; Peluso et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of Fitness Dance and Funny Running on Anxiety of Female Ph.D. Candidates
Zhang, N., Sun, F., Zhu, Y., Zheng, Q., Jia, C., Mao, Y., & Liu, B. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15021118 · Cited by 3
Rethinking the Ph.D. dissertation in botany: Widening the circle
Soltis, D. E., Smocovitis, V. B., Pham, K., et al. (2023) · American Journal of Botany · doi:10.1002/ajb2.16136 · Cited by 2
Berkemeier, L., Kamphuis, W., de Vries, H., Brouwer, A.-M., van Baardewijk, J. U., Schadd, M. P. D., Oldenhuis, H. K. E., Verdaasdonk, R. M., & Gemert-Pijnen, L. V. (2023) · AHFE international · doi:10.54941/ahfe1003013 · Cited by 2
The Differential Effect of Oxytocin on Mindfulness in People with Different Resilience Level
Lau, W. K., Sánchez-Vidaña, D. I., Tai, A. P.-L., Chan, J. N.-M., Ngan, L. H.-M., Leung, M.-K., & Lau, B. W.-M. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02186-5 · Cited by 3
“1 3 health disorders have been reported in university students when compared to the general population (Auerbach et al., 2016; Levecque et al., 2017; Stallman, 2010).”
BackgroundRealizing the price of academic freedom
Chalise, U., & King, D. R. (2023) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00480.2023 · Cited by 2
Developing self-care habits through a hybrid coaching framework in higher education
Morel, N. J., Brown, D., & Duke, A. B. (2023) · International Coaching Psychology Review · doi:10.53841/bpsicpr.2023.18.2.40 · Cited by 2
Research Environment, Culture, Capacity, Capabilities and Connectivity
Palmer, N., Davies, J. T., & Viney, C. (2023) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-78973-499-720231005 · Cited by 3
Understanding Stress and Relief: How Engineering Graduate Students Experience and Cope with Stress
Riley, D., & Mallouk, K. E. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--44542 · Cited by 2
Exploring the experiences of ethnic minority postgraduate researchers in the UK
Lynam, S., Lafarge, C., & Milani, R. M. (2024) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2024.2316614 · Cited by 30
“…including lack of funding, unsatisfactory supervisory relationships, high work-load, lack of job control and role ambiguity – being considered neither student nor sta ff (Berry et al., 2021; Levecque et al., 2017; Mackie & Bates, 2019; Woolston, 2019) – EM PGRs face additional obstacles (OfS, 2020).”
Wisdom must be hurt: PhD students’ stress and dilemma from the perspective of self-efficacy
Fangqi, Z., & Li, P. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06078-2 · Cited by 2
“…on the one hand, institutionalized support such as school counseling departments and hospital psychiatric departments, and on the other hand, non-institutionalized support from intimate relationships such as classmates, friends, lovers, and family (Waight & Giordano, 2018; Levecque et al., 2017 ).”
Meibauer, G., Renic, N. C., Rodehau-Noack, J., et al. (2024) · International Studies Perspectives · doi:10.1093/isp/ekae012 · Cited by 2
Balancing the Tedious See-Saw of Academic Pressure and Personal Growth
Nayak, A. P., & Kachhi, Z. (2024) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1455-5.ch013 · Cited by 2
DeMott, K., Repenning, N., Almersson, F., Chimenti, G., Delfino, G. F., Duenas, N., Fredriksson, C., Guo, Z., Skinnerup, T. H., Sokolovskyy, L., et al. (2024) · Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management · doi:10.1108/qram-02-2023-0031 · Cited by 2
Time to act: Mental health and desired university supports among graduate students
Martow, J. H., Thornton, E. M., Conlon, P. D., Jones, A. Q., Lyons, S. T., Khosa, D. K., Hewson, J., Roche, S., Wright, C., & Lumley, M. N. (2024) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2024.2410271 · Cited by 4
“Many studies report high prevalence of mental health issues among graduate students, with one study finding that 49.3% met criteria for a psychiatric disorder compared to 26.2% of the US population (Levecque et al., 2017).”
InfluentialWhen Bouncing Back Is Harmful: Exploring the Dark Side of Resilience in PhD Management Students
Muratbekova‐Touron, M., Amory, T. D., Quevedo, D. G., Glaser, A., GUILHON, M. D. C., Lespérance, C., & Geneste, S. (2024) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2023.0523 · Cited by 5
Jiménez‐Villamizar, M. P., Tejada‐Gallardo, C., Rojas, A. B., Devoto-Araya, M., Fernández-García, M., López-García, R., Bonilla, I., Vujčić, M. T., Mol, S. T., Sanz, A., et al. (2024) · Psychology Society & Education · doi:10.21071/pse.v16i3.17180 · Cited by 2
Singh, H., Bankston, A., & McDowell, G. S. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1477016 · Cited by 3
Prieto, L. P., Jovanović, J., Odriozola-González, P., Rodríguez‐Triana, M. J., Díaz-Chavarría, H. B., & Dimitriadis, Y. A. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102705 · Cited by 4
Thriving or Depleted? Profiles of Burnout and Work Engagement in Academia
Witte, H. D., & Hootegem, A. V. (2025) · Aligning perspectives on health, safety and well-being · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-85772-0_4 · Cited by 2
Musgrove, M. M. C., Petrie, K., Cooley, A., & Schussler, E. E. (2025) · Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education · doi:10.1128/jmbe.00032-25 · Cited by 9
Anxiety Levels in Teachers of Initial English Language Training in Ecuador
Piguave, J. E. B., Mondragón, N. I., Holguín, J. S. V., Cambra, A. G., & Sáez, I. A. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15080972 · Cited by 4
How novice doctoral co-supervisors promote well-being in PhD students
Almlöv, C., Edström, K., & Geschwind, L. (2025) · Studies in Graduate and Postdoctoral Education · doi:10.1108/sgpe-06-2024-0064 · Cited by 2
Potholes in the academy: Navigating toxic academic practices in South Africa
Singh, M. (2024) · Journal of Education · doi:10.17159/2520-9868/i94a07 · Cited by 2
“Levecque et al. (2017), Shahnawaz and Siddiqi (2022), and Wollast et al. (2018) argued that, given the strong influence supervisors have on their students, it is surprising that a more systematic body of literature, particularly in relation to mental health and dropout rates, is not available on…”
Mugendi, S. M., & Githae, E. N. (2021) · Cited by 2
A Investigação e a Escrita: Publicar sem Perecer
Sequeiros, P., Carvalho, M. J., & Capinha, G. (2021) · Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra eBooks · doi:10.14195/978-989-26-2156-2 · Cited by 3
Graduate Research Experience in the Arab Gulf: The Case in Qatar
Newsome, M. (2023) · Gulf Studies · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7796-1_8 · Cited by 2
Contentment or Torment? An Analytic Autoethnography of Publication Aptitude in Doctor of Philosophy
Rahman, A., & Jahan, Y. (2020) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4252 · Cited by 2
“…yet an obvious pressure of publication generates subsequent adverse implications on ESDRs such as stress, isolation, and even increases the likelihood of attrition or withdrawal from the program (Gardner & Gopaul, 2012; Jairam & Kahl Jr, 2012; Levecque et al., 2017; Powell, 2004; Shen, 2015).”
BackgroundMeurer, A. M., & Costa, F. (2020) · Advances in Scientific and Applied Accounting · doi:10.14392/asaa.2020130306 · Cited by 2
Evaluation of Iranian Students’ Mental Health: A Cross-sectional Survey
Akhlaghdoust, M., Davoodi, P., Hashemi, A., et al. (2021) · International Clinical Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.34172/icnj.2021.16 · Cited by 2
Khaiyom, J. H. A., Mukhtar, F., & Oei, T. P. S. (2021) · Journal of Health and Translational Medicine · doi:10.22452/jummec.vol24no2.6 · Cited by 2
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Qualitative Forschung auf dem Prüfstand
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Simmons, D. R., Chau, A. D., & Turner, M. (2022) · Journal of Management in Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0001073 · Cited by 2
Ning-xia, Q. (2022) · Occupational Therapy International · doi:10.1155/2022/1277121 · Cited by 2
“It shows that the test-retest reliability of the questionnaire is good [19, 20].”
BackgroundRetractedNetwork Leadership Theory: A New Research Agenda
Shvindina, H., Balahurovska, І., & Heiets, I. (2022) · Business Ethics and Leadership · doi:10.21272/bel.6(1).25-32.2022 · Cited by 2
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Valks, I., Satrio, D., Reitsma, A., Wolthers, K. C., Dierickx, K., Benschop, K., Pajkrt, D., & OrganoVIR (2022) · Open Research Europe · doi:10.12688/openreseurope.15083.1 · Cited by 3
“These include the pressure to publish, a strain on relationships with their advisors, uncertainty and financial insecurity, the competitive academic job market, and workload (Levecque et al. , 2017; Mackie & Bates, 2019; Wyatt & Oswalt, 2013).”
BackgroundPhD Candidature During the Pandemic: Hansel and Gretel’s Trip Through the Woods
Lee, Q. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7757-2_18 · Cited by 2
Freya, A., & Cutri, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7757-2_30 · Cited by 2
Prevalence of depression and associated factors among adults: The PERSIAN Guilan cohort study (PGCS)
Isanazar, A., Joukar, F., Maroufizadeh, S., Faraji, N., Zeinali, T., Soleimani, R., Naghipour, M., & Mansour‐Ghanaei, F. (2023) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-023-01898-1 · Cited by 2
“Other studies are in line with our results in which longitudinal analysis was used to investigate negative effect of education (Cohen et al. 2020; Levecque et al. 2017).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Levecque, K., Anseel, F., De Beuckelaer, A., Van der Heyden, J., & Gisle, L.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Institut Scientifique de Santé Publique (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Levecque, Katia
- Venue
- Research Policy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-05
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 868-879
- ISSN
- 0048-7333 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2595745805
- Cited by
- 1,182
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 141 · 2025: 120 · 2024: 166 · 2023: 153 · 2022: 163 · 2021: 141 · 2020: 131 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 16
- FWCI
- 131.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Research Policy (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Ministry of Work, Economy, Innovation and Sports
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Doctoral Education Challenges and Solutions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare professionals’ stress and burnout
- Keywords
- doctoral students, mental health, work organization, academic working conditions, depression, job demands, job control, supervisor leadership, work-family interface, university students, highly educated employees
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