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Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students

Open access
Levecque, Katia, Anseel, Frederik, De Beuckelaer, Alain, Van der Heyden, Johan, Gisle, Lydia·2017·Research Policy
DOI 10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.008

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

Research policy observers are increasingly concerned about the potential impact of current academic working conditions on mental health, particularly in PhD students. The aim of the current study is threefold. First, we assess the prevalence of mental health problems in a representative sample of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium (N = 3659). Second, we compare PhD students to three other samples: (1) highly educated in the general population (N = 769); (2) highly educated employees (N = 592); and (3) higher education students (N = 333). Third, we assess those organizational factors relating to the role of PhD students that predict mental health status. Results based on 12 mental health symptoms (GHQ-12) showed that 32% of PhD students are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression. This estimate was significantly higher than those obtained in the comparison groups. Organizational policies were significantly associated with the prevalence of mental health problems. Especially work-family interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor’s leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a representative Flemish sample of 3,659 PhD students, 32% screened at GHQ4+ for risk of a common psychiatric disorder, and 51% reported at least two GHQ-12 symptoms. Mental health problems were more prevalent than in three comparison groups and were linked to work-family conflict, job demands and control, supervisor leadership, team decision-making, and career perceptions.

Key findings

  • Prevalence among PhD students was 51% for GHQ2+, 40% for GHQ3+, and 32% for GHQ4+. The most common symptoms included constant strain, unhappiness/depression, sleep loss from worry, difficulty overcoming problems, and reduced enjoyment of daily activities.
  • Compared with the highly educated general population, PhD students had adjusted risk ratios of 1.90 for GHQ2+, 2.26 for GHQ3+, and 2.43 for GHQ4+. Compared with highly educated employees, the corresponding ratios were 2.02, 2.56, and 2.84; compared with higher education students, they were 1.53, 1.63, and 1.85.
  • Work-family conflict was the strongest predictor in relative-weight terms (34.1% for GHQ2+ and 29.8% for GHQ4+). Job demands had ORs of 1.896 for GHQ2+ and 1.651 for GHQ4+; job control had ORs of 0.784 and 0.631; family-work conflict had ORs of 1.206 and 1.296; work-family conflict had ORs of 1.521 and 1.522.
  • Inspirational supervisor leadership was associated with lower odds (OR 0.868 for GHQ2+, 0.908 for GHQ4+), laissez-faire leadership with higher distress odds (OR 1.084 for GHQ2+), and closed team decision-making with higher GHQ4+ odds (OR 1.205). No discipline differences were found; executing-phase students had lower odds than initiating-phase students, and positive career perceptions inside or outside academia were associated with better mental health.

Methods

  • Cross-sectional 2013 web survey of junior researchers at all Flemish universities; the analytic sample was 3,659 PhD students from a total population of 12,191, with a 33% response rate. Selective non-response analyses showed slightly more women, younger respondents, social scientists, and Belgians than in the total population.
  • Comparison groups came from Belgian Health Interview Surveys: highly educated general population (N = 769), highly educated employees (N = 592), and higher education students (N = 333, pooled across 2001, 2004, 2008, and 2013).
  • Mental health was measured with the GHQ-12 using GHQ2+, GHQ3+, and GHQ4+ thresholds. Analyses included adjusted risk ratios controlling for age and gender, and logistic regressions producing odds ratios, relative weights, and Nagelkerke R² values (0.202 for GHQ2+ and 0.204 for GHQ4+), with controls for gender, age, partner, and children.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the cross-sectional design prevents causal conclusions, including possible self-selection or the alternative that distressed PhD students evaluate their environment more negatively.
  • The paper also states that findings may be specific to Flanders, that financial conditions differ from countries where PhD students face more financial worries, and that GHQ4+ is a probabilistic screening measure rather than a clinical diagnosis.
  • Evident from the text: the 33% response rate and selective non-response may affect prevalence estimates; all mental health measures are self-reported; and the higher education student comparison group was pooled across multiple survey years.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.008

Cites

77 of 77 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

4 of 65 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings.

    “Studies almost unanimously report a consistent link between high job demands and emotional exhaustion and depressive feelings (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Lange et al., 2004 source

      The Correlational analyses section reports that higher job demands predicted increases in both depression and emotional exhaustion over time. The paper therefore supports the link, but its findings do not establish the claim that studies report it almost unanimously; the Introduction describes mixed support for the broader high-strain hypothesis. The supplied passages give no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Low support at work affects levels of anxiety, emotional exhaustion, job tension and job satisfaction.

    “Low support at work has long been found to affect levels of anxiety, emotional exhaustion, job tension and job satisfaction (e.g.De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Lange et al., 2004 source

      The Correlational analyses section (page unavailable) reports that greater supervisor support was associated with lower emotional exhaustion over time. It does not report that support affected anxiety or job tension; for job satisfaction, the reported direction runs from satisfaction to later supervisor support, not the reverse. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source
  • Findingown data

    Perception of a career outside academia is linked to mental health problems among PhD students.

    “Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
  • Findingown data

    Work-family interface is linked to mental health problems among PhD students.

    “Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
  • Findingown data

    Job control is linked to mental health problems among PhD students.

    “Especially workfamily interface, job demands and job control, the supervisor's leadership style, team decision-making culture, and perception of a career outside academia are linked to mental health problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • May combine two claims. 30

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low.

    “Most, but not all, occupational health studies find significant emotional costs when job control is low (De Lange et al., 2004;Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Lange et al., 2004 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says studies of high-strain jobs have yielded mixed support for adverse health effects, but it does not say most studies find significant effects or isolate low job control from high demands and low support. The Correlational analyses section (page unavailable) links greater job control to greater subsequent job satisfaction, not to lower depression or emotional exhaustion. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Employment frustration and reward frustration have an impact on self-reported mental health.

    “As prior research has shown that both employment frustration (not finding the work one wants) and reward frustration (e.g.poor promotion prospects) have an impact on self-reported mental health (e.g.Castro et al., 2010), the current study will also examine the career prospects of PhD students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Castro et al., 2010 source

      The Results and Discussion report an association between employment frustration and lower self-rated mental health among Asian immigrants. The Measures and Limitations sections show that promotion prospects were not measured separately as “reward frustration”; the paper also says its cross-sectional data cannot establish a causal impact. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    32% of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression.

    “Results based on 12 mental health symptoms (GHQ-12) showed that 32% of PhD students are at risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder, especially depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The number of faculty in Flanders has only marginally increased over the past 15 years, leading to an increased ratio of 3.2 PhD students per faculty member in 2014.

    “As shown in Fig. 1, the number of faculty in Flanders has only marginally increased over the past 15 years, leading to an increased ratio of 3.2 PhD students per faculty member in 2014.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The association between having a partner and GHQ4+ was in the same direction, but not statistically significant.

    “The association with GHQ4+ was in the same direction, but not statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Work-family conflict was the most important predictor of both psychological distress and risk of a common psychiatric disorder in PhD students (% RW = 34.1% and 29.8%, respectively).

    “Most important was work-family conflict (% RW = 34.1% and 29.8% for GHQ2+ and GHQ4+, respectively), and this was more important than family-work conflict (% RW = 10.2% and 12.2% for GHQ2+ and GHQ4+, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The regression equation relating work context factors to psychological distress showed significant predictive power; Nagelkerke R2 was 0.202 for GHQ2+ and 0.204 for GHQ4+.

    “The value of the Nagelkerke R2 (pseudo R2) was 0.202 for the GHQ2+ and 0.204 for the GHQ4+, which were reasonable effect sizes for psychological research in the workplace (Bosco et al., 2015;Landry et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bosco et al., 2015 source
    • cites Landry et al., 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most prevalent are feelings of being under constant strain, unhappiness and depression, sleeping problems due to worries, inability to overcome difficulties and not being able to enjoy day-to-day activities.

    “Most prevalent are feelings of being under constant strain, unhappiness and depression, sleeping problems due to worries, inability to overcome difficulties and not being able to enjoy day-to-day activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High job demands and low job control were significantly associated with psychological distress (GHQ2+) and with the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (GHQ4+).

    “The analyses revealed significant relationships with psychological distress (GHQ2+) and with the risk of having or developing a common psychiatric disorder (GHQ4+) in case of high job demands and low job control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Comparing PhD students with higher education students, differences in mental health were smaller than for the other comparison groups, but the prevalence remained higher in PhD students.

    “Comparing PhD students with higher education students, we observed that differences in mental health were smaller than for the other comparison groups, but the prevalence remained higher in PhD students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other studies have tended to utilize samples of university employees in general and mostly reported aggregate findings, making it difficult to draw fine-grained conclusions on the mental health of PhD students as a separate category.

    “Other studies, especially European and Australian ones, have tended to utilize samples of university employees in general and mostly reported aggregate findings (Kinman, 2008), making it difficult to draw fine-grained conclusions on the mental health of PhD students as a separate category.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kinman, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress.

    “Existing research on occupational stress in university staff has consistently found work load to be one of the main causes of stress (e.g.Gillespie et al., 2001;Winefield et al., 2003;Kinman, 2001;Kinman et al., 2006;Tytherleigh et al., 2005;Biron et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2011;Mark and Smith, 2012;Boyd et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gillespie et al., 2001 source
    • cites Winefield et al., 2003 source
    • cites Kinman, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The number of published studies focusing on mental health of PhD students is limited, as most studies have focused on the undergraduate level.

    “Second, the number of published studies focusing on mental health of PhD students is limited (El-Ghoroury et al., 2012), as most studies have focused on the undergraduate level (Peluso et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites El-Ghoroury et al., 2012 source
    • cites Peluso et al., 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There is a current lack of an empirical basis for mental health concerns and solutions in PhD students.

    “Given the current lack of an empirical basis for mental health concerns and solutions, the current study has three aims.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The GHQ-12 enables researchers to tap into both psychological distress and depression.

    “The most widely used measurement instrument in occupational health research, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), enables researchers to tap into both psychological distress and depression (Goldberg, 1972;Goldberg and Williams, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Goldberg, 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Goldberg and Williams, 1988

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several studies have found evidence for the role of task and relational conflict on employee well-being.

    “Several studies have found evidence for the role of task and relational conflict on employee well-being (e.g.Martinez-Corts et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martinez-Corts et al., 2015 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Job demands and job control were assessed using the Dutch VBBA-quality of labor questionnaire.

    “Job demands and job control were assessed using the Dutch VBBA-quality of labor questionnaire (Vanroelen et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vanroelen et al., 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Flanders has seen a rise in PhD production that is substantially larger than in other EU countries: in the academic year 2013-2014, a total of 1724 new doctorates were awarded, which is an increase of 71% compared to 2004-2005.

    “Flanders has seen a rise in PhD production that is substantially larger than in other EU countries: in the academic year 2013-2014, a total of 1724 new doctorates were awarded, which is an increase of 71% compared to 2004-2005(ECOOM, 2015)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites ECOOM, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Internal consistency was 0.85 for the job demands scale and 0.88 for the job control scale.

    “Internal consistency was 0.85 for the job demands scale and 0.88 for the job control scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    It is important to consider both the conflict of work with family life and the conflict of family life with work.

    “In their cross discipline study in nine US research universities, Fox et al. (2011) show that it is important to consider both the conflict of work with family life and the conflict of family life with work.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fox et al., 2011 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a Finnish study of 383 PhD students, 44% reported the academic community as a source of empowerment, enthusiasm and inspiration, while 56% experienced it as a source of burden.

    “In a Finnish study of 383 PhD students, Stubb et al. (2011) found that 44% reported the academic community as a source of empowerment, enthusiasm and inspiration, while 56% experienced it as a source of burden.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stubb et al. (2011) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview.

    “The GHQ is a screening instrument to identify psychological distress and potential cases of common psychiatric disorder (especially depression), leaving the task of diagnosing actual disorder to a psychiatric interview (McDowell, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McDowell, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The survey had 4069 participants (response rate of 33%).

    “There were 4069 participants (response rate of 33%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Cronbach's alphas were 0.93, 0.78 and 0.74 for the three leadership styles, respectively.

    “Cronbach's alphas were 0.93, 0.78 and 0.74 for the three leadership styles, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Preliminary analyses showed that pooling of HIS data over years was warranted as year of survey administration had no impact on mental health outcomes.

    “Preliminary analyses showed that pooling of HIS data over years was warranted as year of survey administration had no impact on mental health outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2.

    “The internal consistency of the GHQ-12 was 0.88 in Sample 1 and 0.87 in Sample 2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Few studies among academics have addressed work-family conflict bi-directionally, with the exception of Post et al. (2009).

    “However, with the exception of Post et al. (2009), few studies among academics have addressed work-family conflict bi-directionally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Post et al., 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A lack of social support has been identified as a major source of occupational stress in university staff.

    “A lack of social support has been identified as a major source of occupational stress in university staff (Gillespie et al., 2001;Biron et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gillespie et al., 2001 source
    • cites Biron et al., 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Workers' participation in decision making reduces job-related emotional strain, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism and turnover intentions.

    “Workers' participation in decision making has often been shown to reduce job-related emotional strain, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism and turnover intentions (e.g.Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Team conflict was assessed using Jehn's (1995) Intragroup Conflict scale.

    “Team conflict was assessed using Jehn's (1995) Intragroup Conflict scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jehn, 1995 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to Kinman (2001), the social interaction patterns between university staff have shifted from a culture of collegiality to a bureaucratic culture and a management style in which consultation and participation in decision making are given less importance.

    “According to Kinman (2001), the social interaction patterns between university staff have shifted from a culture of collegiality to a bureaucratic culture and a management style in which consultation and participation in decision making are given less importance (see also Biron et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kinman (2001) source
    • cites Biron et al., 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As the supply-side of PhD production steadily increases and the demand-side of tenure track positions remains largely unaltered, more and more students turn to the nonacademic labor market after obtaining their PhD, often regarding this as a second-choice option.

    “As the supplyside of PhD production steadily increases, and the demand-side of tenure track positions remains largely unaltered (see Fig. 1), more and more students turn to the nonacademic labor market after obtaining their PhD, often regarding this as a second-choice option (Van Damme, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van Damme, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The interplay between work and home is a significant potential source of stress impacting mental health, particularly for dual career couples and those experiencing financial difficulties or life crises.

    “According to the WHO (2010), the interplay between work and home is also a significant potential source of stress impacting mental health, particularly for dual career couples and those experiencing financial difficulties or life crises.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites WHO (2010)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The HIS surveys follow a similar research design and procedures as for Sample 1.

    “These surveys are periodically organized in Belgium by the Scientific Institute of Public Health and follow a similar research design and procedures as for Sample 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites HIS, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being.

    “The GHQ is the most frequently used scale worldwide to tap into psychological well-being (e.g.Boyd et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boyd et al., 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Work-home conflict in the university sector has particularly strong relations with psychological distress.

    “As in other settings, work-home conflict in the university sector has also shown particularly strong relations with psychological distress (Kinman and Jones, 2003;Kinman et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kinman and Jones, 2003 source
    • cites Kinman et al., 2006 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70.

    “A worldwide study on mental health by the World Health Organization suggests using the GHQ4+ if the mean GHQ score in the sample is higher than 2.70 (Goldberg et al., 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goldberg et al., 1998 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Selective non-response analyses showed a slightly higher proportion of females, respondents in the youngest age categories, social scientists and Belgians compared to the total population.

    “Selective non-response analyses showed a slightly higher proportion of females, respondents in the youngest age categories, social scientists and Belgians compared to the total population.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Inspirational leadership style, autocratic leadership style, and 'laissez-faire' or passive leadership style were measured using 11, 6 and 4 items respectively.

    “Inspirational leadership style, autocratic leadership style, and 'laissez-faire' or passive leadership style were measured using 11, 6 and 4 items respectively (de Hoogh et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites de Hoogh et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered for a mental health problem.

    “The literature reports substantial variation in the minimum number of symptoms to be considered (Goldberg et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goldberg et al., 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Work-life interference is high in the university sector.

    “Prior research in the university sector has shown that work-life interference is high (e.g.Gmelch et al., 1984;Kinman and Jones, 2003;Fox et al., 2011;Sun et al., 2011)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gmelch et al., 1984 source
    • cites Kinman and Jones, 2003 source
    • cites Fox et al., 2011 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The analyses controlled for sociodemographic characteristics.

    “Table 5 reports the findings of analyses examining whether characteristics of the work and organizational context of PhD students in Flanders were associated with their mental health, while controlling for sociodemographic characteristics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Cronbach's alpha for the team conflict scale was 0.92.

    “Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.92.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A higher number of PhD students for each advisor could make it more difficult for faculty to invest sufficient time and attention in each PhD student.

    “A higher number of PhD students for each advisor could imply that faculty may find it more difficult to invest sufficient time and attention in each PhD student.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Governmental research policies that allow advisors to invest in developing an inspirational influence towards their PhD students could buffer against stress.

    “In contrast, governmental research policies that allow advisors to invest in developing an inspirational influence towards their PhD students could buffer against stress (LePine et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites LePine et al., 2016 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The adjusted RR statistically corrects for age and gender differences across samples.

    “The adjusted RR statistically corrects for age and gender differences across samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A situation in which supply exceeds demand for professionals with a PhD not only impacts mental health but weakens the implicit psychological contract between PhD students and the research team, thus directly affecting research performance.

    “Stephan and Levin (2001) have shown that such a situation not only impacts mental health, but weakens the implicit psychological contract between PhD students and the research team in which they are doing their research, thus directly affecting research performance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stephan and Levin (2001) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Universities will benefit in terms of PhD students' mental health when they facilitate management of work-family balance and workload, design open decision-making procedures, and help PhD supervisors to adopt leadership styles that lead to satisfactory and constructive work relations.

    “Our analyses suggest that universities will benefit in terms of PhD students' mental health when they facilitate management of work-family balance and workload, design open decision-making procedures, and help PhD supervisors to adopt leadership styles that lead to satisfactory and constructive work relations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies in other countries have shown that financial worries and debts are one of the major stressors experienced by those working towards a PhD.

    “Studies in other countries have shown that financial worries and debts are one of the major stressors experienced by those working towards a PhD (Biron et al., 2008;El-Ghoroury et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Biron et al., 2008 source
    • cites El-Ghoroury et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The GHQ4+ is a probabilistic measurement for psychiatric caseness, and advises medical attention to be sought for the reported problems.

    “The GHQ4+ is a probabilistic measurement for psychiatric caseness, and advises medical attention to be sought for the reported problems (McDowell, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McDowell, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Given the international orientation of the academic work environment, with high mobility of researchers across countries, research organization factors rapidly spread across the globe, thus making the PhD experience in all probability comparable across countries.

    “Furthermore, given the international orientation of the academic work environment, with high mobility of researchers across countries, we would expect that research organization factors rapidly spread across the globe, thus making the PhD experience in all probability comparable across countries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The vast number of studies examining causal links between organizational factors and the onset of mental health problems in occupational health research in other settings suggests that the work environment is at least partially responsible for the prevalence of mental health problems observed in the current study.

    “However, the vast number of studies examining causal links between organizational factors and the onset of mental health problems in occupational health research in other settings suggests that the work environment is at least partially responsible for the prevalence of mental health problems observed in the current study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    An increase in the number of PhD students versus stability in the number of faculty positions may give graduating PhD students bleak career prospects, in which supply exceeds demand for professionals with a PhD.

    “Similarly, an increase in the number of PhD students versus stability in the number of faculty positions may give graduating PhD students bleak career prospects, in which supply exceeds demand for professionals with a PhD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Work-life interface was measured using the two widely adopted scales of family-work conflict (5 items) and work-family conflict (5 items) developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996).

    “Work-life interface was measured using the two widely adopted scales of family-work conflict (5 items) and work-family conflict (5 items) developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Netemeyer et al., 1996 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Cronbach's alpha was 0.91 for the life-work conflict scale and 0.93 for the work-life conflict scale.

    “Cronbach's alpha was 0.91 for the life-work conflict scale and 0.93 for the work-life conflict scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Universities might benefit from offering PhD students clear and full information on job expectations and career prospects, both in and outside academia.

    “Our findings also suggest that universities might benefit from offering PhD students clear and full information on job expectations and career prospects, both in and outside academia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A gradual increase in governmental research investments in the number of PhD scholarships and financial incentives for universities to increase the number of PhDs could have unforeseen side effects.

    “For instance, a gradual increase in governmental research investments in the number of PhD scholarships and financial incentives for universities to increase the number of PhDs could have unforeseen side effects (see Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fig. 1

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As financial worries and debts are probably not a crucial issue for PhD students in Flanders, if anything, the prevalence of mental health problems is even higher in those countries where PhD candidates have more financial difficulties.

    “As financial worries and debts are probably not a crucial issue for PhD students in Flanders, if anything, we would expect that the prevalence of mental health problems is even higher in those countries where PhD candidates have more financial difficulties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Our study extends previous research on mental health in the sector by considering work-life conflict bi-directionally and by adding data on future career prospects to a series of well-known organizational stressors found in the work environment.

    “Fourth, our study extends previous research on mental health in the sector by considering work-life conflict bi-directionally and by adding data on future career prospects to a series of well-known organizational stressors found in the work environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Our findings may be idiosyncratic to the Flemish academic landscape.

    “It could be that our findings are idiosyncratic to the Flemish academic landscape.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
60 of 60

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sample of 3659 PhD students in Flanders, Belgium is representative of the population of PhD students in Flanders.

    “a representative sample of PhD students in Flanders, Belgium (N = 3659)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The comparison groups (highly educated general population, highly educated employees, higher education students) are comparable to PhD students for the purpose of comparing mental health prevalence.

    “we compare PhD students to three other samples: (1) highly educated in the general population (N = 769); (2) highly educated employees (N = 592); and (3) higher education students (N = 333).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Official registration of both staff and student mental health problems by universities is relatively low.

    “Official registration of both staff and student mental health problems (e.g.depression, anxiety, burnout or emotional exhaustion) by universities is relatively low, which seems to be in stark contrast with the picture painted in media reports.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Previous research on well-being and mental health in academia has usually been restricted to one specific discipline or university.

    “Previous research on well-being and mental health in academia has usually been restricted to one specific discipline or university.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.

    “Most PhD students in Flanders receive a scholarship or are formally employed by a university.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The diagnosis as to whether an individual actually has a clinically significant disorder must be assessed by psychiatric interview.

    “The diagnosis as to whether an individual actually has a clinically significant disorder must be assessed by psychiatric interview.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the long run, mental health problems in PhD students will impact on research itself.

    “In the long run, however, it will also impact on research itself.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Burnout among trainees is characterized by persistent mental exhaustion, a diminished sense of personal accomplishment, significant financial strain, and pervasive uncertainty about long-term career viability.

    “Burnout among trainees is characterized by persistent mental exhaustion, a diminished sense of personal accomplishment, significant financial strain, and pervasive uncertainty about long‐term career viability [3].”

    From Bridging the Gap Between Training and Reality: A Dental Scientist Trainee Perspective (2026) · cites this paper as [3]

    Section 2.3.1 links high job demands to emotional exhaustion and discusses stress about future career decisions. Section 2.3 mentions financial insecurity as a possible stressor, but Section 5.3 says financial worries are probably not a crucial issue for the Flemish PhD students studied. The paper does not characterize burnout by this four-part list or identify diminished personal accomplishment as one of its features; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • GHQ items are assigned to the wrong table

    Minor

    The text says Table 3 presents the 12 GHQ items, but Table 3 reports PhD-student characteristics. The GHQ symptom rows appear in Table 4.

  • The reported GHQ4+ range omits a higher value in Table 2

    Minor

    The text gives 41.8% as the upper end of the UK GHQ4+ results, but Table 2 also reports 43.4% for a UK academic sample.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 80 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Levecque, K., Anseel, F., De Beuckelaer, A., Van der Heyden, J., & Gisle, L.
Affiliations
  • Ghent University (BE)
  • Institut Scientifique de Santé Publique (BE)
Corresponding author
Levecque, Katia
ORCID
Venue
Research Policy
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-05
Volume
46
Issue
4
Pages
868-879
ISSN
0048-7333 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.008
OpenAlex
W2595745805
Cited by
1,182
References
80
Citations by year
2026: 141 · 2025: 120 · 2024: 166 · 2023: 153 · 2022: 163 · 2021: 141 · 2020: 131 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 16
FWCI
131.66
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Research Policy (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
  • Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
  • SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
  • SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
Funders
Ministry of Work, Economy, Innovation and Sports
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Doctoral Education Challenges and Solutions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare professionals’ stress and burnout
Keywords
doctoral students, mental health, work organization, academic working conditions, depression, job demands, job control, supervisor leadership, work-family interface, university students, highly educated employees

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