Is lithium from geothermal brines the sustainable solution for Li-ion batteries?
Open accessAbstract
The rising demand for Li, paramount for energy storage, necessitates expanded supply. As the supply is concentrated in a few countries, this poses supply chain risks for Li-ion battery makers. To diversify suppliers, alternative Li ore deposits such as geothermal brines are being explored. However, Li extraction from geothermal brines is challenging due to the unique chemistry and elevated temperatures. Since Li-extraction from geothermal brines is in its infancy, data availability and quality are still poor, hampering life cycle assessments. Hence, this study provides a parametrized life cycle inventory model of Li carbonate production from geothermal brines. The model accounts for site-specific environmental conditions and technological features. Life cycle impacts at the Salton Sea in the US (1686 cases) and the Upper Rhine Graben in Germany (1982 cases) are quantified. The high case numbers are chosen to mitigate the high uncertainties in input parameters. Specifically, the brine chemistry, adsorption yield, drilling required and energy inputs are varied. Climate change impacts of selected cases vary within 18–59 kg CO2eq/kg Li carbonate at the Salton Sea and within 5.3–46 kg CO2eq/kg Li carbonate at the Upper Rhine Graben, compared to 2.1–11 kg CO2eq/kg Li carbonate in existing ecoinvent data sets. The wide range of potential impacts underscore the necessity of early-stage assessments of the technologies. In case of high drilling demand and use of fossil energy, climate change impacts of Li-ion batteries using Li carbonate from geothermal brines can increase by 30–41 % compared to literature values.
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Research in LCA of Li chemical production is focused on specific sites characterized by unique geological and technological conditions.
“Research in life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li chemical production is focused on specific sites characterized by unique geological and technological conditions.21−27”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as [27]
CaO requirement at Salton Sea is 2.4 kg/kg Li2CO3.
“For example, 2.4 kg of CaO/kg Li2CO3 at Salton Sea and 0.1 kg of CaO/kg Li2CO3 at Upper Rhine Graben are required.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
The higher chemical demand at Salton Sea compared to Upper Rhine Graben is mainly due to increased impurity content in Salton Sea's brine.
“The main reason for the higher demand of chemicals is the increased impurity content in Salton Sea’s brine compared to that from Upper Rhine Graben.27”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Li concentration in geothermal brine at Upper Rhine Graben is 0.19 wt%.
“The Li concentration in the geothermal brine is 0.19 wt % at Upper Rhine Graben and 0.18 wt % at Salton Sea.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
CaO requirement at Upper Rhine Graben is 0.1 kg/kg Li2CO3.
“For example, 2.4 kg of CaO/kg Li2CO3 at Salton Sea and 0.1 kg of CaO/kg Li2CO3 at Upper Rhine Graben are required.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Energy requirement for Li2CO3 production at Salton Sea is 172 MJ/kg Li2CO3.
“The energy requirements are 172 MJ/kg Li2CO3 at Salton Sea and 179 MJ/kg Li2CO3 at Upper Rhine Graben.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Energy requirement for Li2CO3 production at Upper Rhine Graben is 179 MJ/kg Li2CO3.
“The energy requirements are 172 MJ/kg Li2CO3 at Salton Sea and 179 MJ/kg Li2CO3 at Upper Rhine Graben.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Water demand for Type D sites is 0.36 m3/kg Li2CO3.
“Power demand is similar for both sites, at 14 kW h/kg Li2CO3, as is water demand, at 0.36 m3/kg Li2CO3.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Power demand for Type D sites is 14 kWh/kg Li2CO3.
“Power demand is similar for both sites, at 14 kW h/kg Li2CO3, as is water demand, at 0.36 m3/kg Li2CO3.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Li concentration in geothermal brine at Salton Sea is 0.18 wt%.
“The Li concentration in the geothermal brine is 0.19 wt % at Upper Rhine Graben and 0.18 wt % at Salton Sea.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
In comparison with Schenker et al., heat demand for Salton Sea is reduced from 230 MJ/kg Li2CO3 to 179 MJ/kg Li2CO3 in our model.
“In comparison with the results obtained by Schenker et al.27 is that the heat demand is reduced from 230 MJ/kg Li2CO3 to 179 MJ/kg Li2CO3 in the case of Salton Sea.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as Schenker et al.27
Higher climate change impacts are observed for Salton Sea than for Upper Rhine Graben.
“Higher impacts are observed for the case of Salton Sea than for Upper Rhine Graben.27”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as [27]
Regarding Type D sites, the reported value is 40% lower than 30 kg CO2eq/kg Li2CO3 modeled in this study, which is a result of changes in heating demand due to enhanced recirculation of heated process water in our study.
“Regarding Type D sites, the reported value27 is 40% lower than 30 kg of CO2 eq/kg Li2CO3 modeled in this study (Figure 3), which is a result of the changes in the heating demand due to enhanced recirculation of the heated process water in our study.”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as [27]
Geothermal direct lithium extraction may require even greater quantities of freshwater than other direct lithium extraction.
“geothermal DLE may require even greater quantities of freshwater”
From Lithium and water: Hydrosocial impacts across the life cycle of energy storage (2024) · cites this paper as Schenker et al., 2024
Relative uncertainty in GHG emissions of DLE technology has been found as high as 79% elsewhere.
“For example, relative uncertainty in GHG emissions of DLE technology has been found as high as 79% elsewhere. 53”
From Decarbonizing lithium-ion battery primary raw materials supply chain (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
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References 30 · Cited by 36
- Authors
- Schenker, V., Bayer, P., Oberschelp, C., & Pfister, S.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schenker, Vanessa
- Venue
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-07
- Volume
- 199
- Pages
- 114456
- ISSN
- 1364-0321 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4396499540
- Cited by
- 36
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 12
- FWCI
- 4.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- NCCR Catalysis
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung
- Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (180544)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Photovoltaic Systems and Sustainability
- Keywords
- lithium recovery, geothermal brine, lithium carbonate, life cycle inventory, life cycle assessment, lithium supply chain, lithium-ion batteries, climate change impacts, CO2 emissions, adsorption, Salton Sea, Upper Rhine Graben
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