Decarbonizing lithium-ion battery primary raw materials supply chain

May combine two claims.

Cobalt sulfate has the next highest electricity consumption at 5.7 kWh kg−1, with about 80% occurring during the concentration stage in the DRC, where 96% of the electricity mix is hydropower.

“Cobalt sulfate has the next highest electricity consumption at 5.7 kWh kg 1 , with about 80% of this occurring during the concentration stage in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where 96% of the electricity mix is hydropower.”

May combine two claims.

Combustion of fossil fuels for generating process heat constitutes the major source of emissions for the spodumene-based lithium hydroxide production route, contributing 58% of its life cycle GHG emissions (78% if considering lithium carbonate).

“The combustion of fossil fuels for generating process heat constitutes the major source of emissions for the spodumene- and brine-based lithium hydroxide production routes, contributing to 58% and 42% of their respective life cycle GHG emissions (78% and 48% if considering lithium carbonate; see Figure S1).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For synthetic graphite, the major source of electricity-related GHG emissions is the graphitization of calcined coke.

“For synthetic graphite, the major source of electricity-related GHG emissions is the graphitization of calcined coke.”

May combine two claims.

Synthetic and natural graphite have the highest on-site electricity consumption, at 36 and 8.7 kWh kg−1, respectively, primarily due to electrified high-temperature processes like graphitization (3,000 C) and coating (1,300 C).

“Synthetic and natural graphite have the highest on-site electricity consumption, at 36 and 8.7 kWh kg 1 , respectively, primarily due to electrified high-temperature processes like graphitization (3,000 C) and coating (1,300 C).”

• cites [11] Engels, 2022, Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data, J. Cleaner Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [44] Carrère, 2024, Carbon footprint assessment of manufacturing of synthetic graphite battery anode material for electric mobility applications, J. Energy StorageNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Combustion of fossil fuels for generating process heat constitutes the major source of emissions for the brine-based lithium hydroxide production route, contributing 42% of its life cycle GHG emissions (48% if considering lithium carbonate).

“The combustion of fossil fuels for generating process heat constitutes the major source of emissions for the spodumene- and brine-based lithium hydroxide production routes, contributing to 58% and 42% of their respective life cycle GHG emissions (78% and 48% if considering lithium carbonate; see Figure S1).”

May combine two claims.

Spodumene-based lithium hydroxide requires 3.7 kWh kg−1, nickel sulfate 3.1 kWh kg−1, and brine-based lithium hydroxide 0.5 kWh kg−1.

“Spodumene-based lithium hydroxide requires 3.7 kWh kg 1 , nickel sulfate 3.1 kWh kg 1 , and brine-based lithium hydroxide 0.5 kWh kg 1 .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In general, the bulk of heat demand occurs during the refining stage.

“In general, the bulk of heat demand occurs during the refining stage.”

May combine two claims.

About 57% of this diesel consumption is associated with mining equipment such as front end loaders and drillers, and the other 43% is due to haul trucks.

“About 57% of this consumption is associated with mining equipment such as front end loaders and drillers, and the other 43% is due to haul trucks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The LCI datasets for spodumene and nickel mining report 0.6 and 1.6 kg of diesel per ton of mined ore, respectively.

“For comparison, the LCI datasets for spodumene and nickel mining report 0.6 and 1.6 kg of diesel per ton of mined ore, respectively.”

• cites [38] Wernet, 2016, The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): overview and methodology, Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [42] 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The supply and combustion of diesel contribute to 20% of life cycle GHG emissions for cobalt sulfate, but less than 5% for other commodities.

“The supply and combustion of diesel contribute to 20% of life cycle GHG emissions for cobalt sulfate, but less than 5% for other commodities.”

May combine two claims.

Low-carbon electricity is key for all production routes analyzed, except cobalt sulfate, which predominantly relies on hydropower.

“Low-carbon electricity is key for all the production routes analyzed, except for cobalt sulfate, which predominantly relies on hydropower.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Reagents-related emissions in natural graphite production are related to nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, and hydrochloric acid.

“Reagents-related emissions in natural graphite production are related to nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, and hydrochloric acid.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The production of the other commodities does not involve direct emissions of CO2 from chemical reactions.

“The production of the other commodities does not involve direct emissions of CO2 from chemical reactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Process emissions account for over 24% of life cycle GHG emissions in nickel sulfate production.

“Process emissions account for over 24% of life cycle GHG emissions in nickel sulfate production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hydrated lime, sodium hydroxide, and ammonia are the major contributing reagents for nickel sulfate.

“Hydrated lime, sodium hydroxide, and ammonia are the major contributing reagents for nickel sulfate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Similar studies are not available for nickel sulfate production.

“However, similar studies are not available for nickel sulfate production.”

May combine two claims.

Natural graphite and synthetic graphite show the most substantial reduction in GHG emissions intensity, due to electricity's large contribution to their life cycle GHG emissions.

“Natural graphite and synthetic graphite see the most substantial reduction due to electricity's large contribution to their life cycle GHG emissions.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Renewable electricity is provided by 3 MW onshore wind turbines paired with lithium-iron phosphate (LFP) batteries.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The integrated wind-BESS system provides electricity for all mining, concentration, refining, and reagent production processes, as well as for powering electrified process heat.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Energy efficiency improvements achieve a 5% reduction in overall energy consumption over a 10-year timeframe.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Temperatures below 100 C are supplied by industrial heat pumps, while high-temperature processes are electrified using electric furnaces with an electrical-to-thermal efficiency of 90%.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: All heat demand for reagent production is high temperature and thus supplied by electric furnaces.

May combine two claims.

Cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate exhibit the highest uncertainty, with the uncertainty range for mitigation potential (5th-95th percentiles) spanning 20%-68% and 34%-75%, respectively.

“Cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate exhibit the highest uncertainty, with the uncertainty range for mitigation potential (based on the 5 th -95 th percentiles) spanning 20%-68% and 34%-75%, respectively (Figure S3).”

May combine two claims.

In the STEPS scenario, all commodities except brine-based lithium hydroxide have a decoupling ratio below one, suggesting that absolute decoupling of GHG emissions intensity from demand may be possible after adopting the decarbonization strategies.

“In the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), which assumes existing policies only, all commodities but brine-based lithium hydroxide exhibit a decoupling ratio below one, suggesting that achieving absolute decoupling of GHG emissions intensity of LIB raw materials after the adoption of the decarbonization strategies outlined in Figure 4.”

May combine two claims.

The mitigation gap is about 22% for nickel sulfate, 10% for cobalt sulfate, and 7% for synthetic graphite.

“This gap is about 22% for nickel sulfate, 10% for cobalt sulfate, and 7% for synthetic graphite.”

May combine two claims.

For lithium hydroxide, the uncertainty range is 52%-76% for brines and 65%-80% for spodumene, whereas natural graphite displays significantly lower uncertainty (82%-87%).

“For lithium hydroxide, the uncertainty range is 52%-76% for brines and 65%-80% for spodumene, whereas natural graphite displays significantly lower uncertainty (82%-87%).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Bridging the gap to absolute decoupling may require additional strategies including low-carbon haul trucks, electrification of processing equipment, reagents regeneration and/or substitution, alternative reducing agents, improvements in material recovery rates, or new and emerging production technologies.

“Bridging this gap may require additional strategies, including low-carbon haul trucks, electrification of processing equipment, reagents regeneration and/or substitution, alternative reducing agents, improvements in material recovery rates, or new and emerging production technologies.”

May combine two claims.

Substantial spikes in demand for LIB raw materials are expected by 2030, including lithium (8.6-fold), graphite (7.6-fold), nickel (7.6-fold), and cobalt (three-fold).

“As a result, substantial spikes in demand for raw materials used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are expected, including lithium (with a projected 8.6-fold increase by 2030), graphite (7.6-fold increase), nickel (7.6-fold increase), and cobalt (a three-fold increase) (Figure 1A).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is highly unlikely for EVs to exhibit higher life cycle GHG emissions than fossil fuel vehicles.

“While it is highly unlikely for EVs to exhibit higher life cycle GHG emissions than fossil fuel vehicles, substantial emissions from the raw materials supply chain can potentially reduce their climate benefits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Low-carbon electricity, heat, and reagents are fundamental for decarbonizing battery-grade raw materials.

“Low-carbon electricity, heat, and reagents are fundamental for decarbonizing battery-grade raw materials.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Absolute decoupling of GHG emissions from demand growth would require additional decarbonization efforts, including low-carbon haul trucks, electrification of processing equipment, reagents regeneration and/or substitution, alternative reducing agents, improvements in material recovery rates, and new and emerging production technologies.

“Absolute decoupling of GHG emissions from demand growth would require additional decarbonization efforts, including low-carbon haul trucks, electrification of processing equipment, reagents regeneration and/or substitution,”

May combine two claims.

Decarbonization strategies are often process-specific, which limits their direct application to battery-grade raw materials.

“While this body of knowledge provides possible decarbonization pathways, it is worth noting that decarbonization strategies are often process-specific, which limits their direct application to battery-grade raw materials.”

• cites [21] Gailani, 2024, Assessing the potential of decarbonization options for industrial sectors, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Both types of graphite are produced in China, where the electricity mix has an emissions intensity of 0.95 kg CO2-equiv kWh−1, varying substantially across graphite hubs-from 0.68 in Gansu to 1.14 in Anhui.

“Moreover, both types of graphite are produced in China (Table 1), where the electricity mix has an emissions intensity of 0.95 kg CO2-equiv kWh 1 , varying substantially across graphite hubs-from 0.68 kg CO2-equiv kWh 1 in Gansu province to 1.14 kg CO2-equiv kWh 1 in Anhui.”

• cites [45] Kallitsis, 2024, Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources, J. Cleaner Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

High-quality and disaggregated LCI data remain scarce for battery-grade raw materials.

“High-quality and disaggregated life cycle inventory (LCI) data are crucial for conducting an LCA, yet such data remain scarce for battery-grade raw materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Overall, heat sources are typically specific to each production route, implying that they might differ for other routes not analyzed in this study.

“Overall, heat sources are typically specific to each production route, implying that they might differ for other routes not analyzed in this study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Transitioning to low-carbon electricity can be achieved either indirectly through a decarbonized power grid or directly by installing renewable power generation technologies on-site.

“Transitioning to low-carbon electricity can be achieved either indirectly through a decarbonized power grid (as for cobalt sulfate) or directly by installing renewable power generation technologies on-site.”

May combine two claims.

Renewable energy capacity at mining sites grew from 0.6 GW in 2015 to 5 GW installed or announced by 2019, and further expansion is expected.

“renewable energy capacity at mining sites growing from 0.6 GW in 2015 to 5 GW installed or announced by 2019, and further expansion expected. 50,51”

• cites [50] Choi, 2017, Review of photovoltaic and wind power systems utilized in the mining industry, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [51] Igogo, 2021, Integrating renewable energy into mining operations: Opportunities, challenges, and enabling approaches, Appl. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Multiple alternatives may exist within decarbonization strategies, such as electrified heat, low-carbon fuels, and renewable heat sources for process heat, as well as batteries, hydrogen fuel cells, or biofuel for haul trucks.

“Similarly, multiple alternatives may exist within decarbonization strategies, such as electrified heat, low-carbon fuels, and renewable heat sources for process heat, as well as batteries, hydrogen fuel cells, or biofuel for haul trucks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to the aggregation of the nickel sulfate LCI dataset, it was not possible to determine the specific contribution of process emissions to each production route.

“Due to the aggregation of the nickel sulfate LCI dataset, it was not possible to determine the specific contribution of process emissions to each production route.”

• cites [42] 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These findings are aligned with findings for the mining and metal sector as a whole, e.g., concerning the lower relevance of GHG emissions from explosives, tailings disposal, or long-distance transportation.

“These findings are aligned with findings for the mining and metal sector as a whole, e.g., concerning the lower relevance of GHG emissions from explosives, 47 tailings disposal, 48 or long-distance transportation.”

• cites [47] Lai, 2021, The environmental performance of mining operations: Comparison of alternative mining solutions in a life cycle perspective, J. Cleaner Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [48] Beylot, 2022, LCA as a support to more sustainable tailings management: critical review, lessons learnt and potential way forward, Resour. Conserv. Recy. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [49] Rachid, 2023, Environmental evaluation of metals and minerals production based on a life cycle assessment approach: A systematic review, Miner. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Energy consumption in the mining and metal sector has been continuously optimized over time, suggesting relatively modest additional energy efficiency gains and thus mitigation opportunities in the short- and medium-term.

“Energy consumption in the mining and metal sector has been continuously optimized over time, suggesting relatively modest additional energy efficiency gains and thus mitigation opportunities in the short- and medium-term. 54,55”

• cites [54] Allwood, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [55] Kuipers, 2018, Assessing environmental implications associated with global copper demand and supply scenarios from 2010 to 2050, Glob. Environ. Change sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other studies have reported a 5% reduction in GHG emissions from the Australian mining sector due to optimization and efficiency.

“Other studies have reported a 5% reduction in GHG emissions from the Australian mining sector due to optimization and efficiency, 56”

• cites [56] 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A single emission source may have several mutually exclusive strategies for reducing emissions.

“It is worth noting that a single emission source may have several mutually exclusive strategies for reducing emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

GHG emissions from process heat can be reduced by shifting away from fossil fuels or by implementing CCUS.

“For example, GHG emissions from process heat can be reduced by shifting away from fossil fuels (i.e., decarbonized heat) or by implementing CCUS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An analysis of the EU non-ferrous metal industry indicates an economic potential to reduce overall energy consumption by about 0.5% per year (cumulative 12% by 2050) through measures such as highly efficient furnaces, integrated control systems, waste heat recovery, and combustion optimization.

“an analysis of the European Union (EU) non-ferrous metal industry indicates an economic potential to reduce overall energy consumption by about 0.5% per year (for a cumulative reduction of 12% by 2050) through measures such as highly efficient furnaces, integrated control systems, waste heat recovery, and combustion optimization. 18”

• cites [18] Wyns, 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The relevance of decarbonization strategies varies across commodities.

“Moreover, the relevance of decarbonization strategies varies across commodities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Green hydrogen, produced via water electrolysis powered by renewables, is gaining momentum for high-temperature applications.

“green hydrogen, produced via water electrolysis powered by renewables, is also gaining momentum for high-temperature applications. 60”

• cites [60] Thiel, 2021, To decarbonize industry, we must decarbonize heat, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recovery and recirculation of solutions produced from process reactions is already common for some commodities.

“Recovery and recirculation of solutions produced from process reactions is already common for some commodities.”

May combine two claims.

Regenerating and reusing reagents can minimize their consumption and reduce the GHG emissions associated with their production.

“Regenerating and reusing reagents can minimize their consumption and reduce the GHGemissions associated with their production. This includes acids and bases used for leaching and pH control, solvents used in solvent extraction processes, and reducing and oxidizing agents. 26”

• cites [26] Binnemans, 2023, The Twelve Principles of Circular Hydrometallurgy, J. Sustain. Metall. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A 10%-30% energy consumption reduction from adopting modern boilers equipped with integrated control systems has been reported.

“a 10%-30% energy consumption reduction from adopting modern boilers equipped with integrated control systems. 57”

• cites [57] Rissman, 2020, Technologies and policies to decarbonize global industry: Review and assessment of mitigation drivers through 2070, Appl. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Low-carbon haul trucks present a promising avenue for reducing mining-related emissions, yet their mitigation potential remains low due to the minor contribution of mining to life cycle GHG emissions and the technology's current stage of development.

“Low-carbon haul trucks present a promising avenue for reducing mining-related emissions, yet their mitigation potential remains low due to the minor contribution of mining to life cycle GHG emissions and the technology's current stage of development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the International Copper Association, the electrification of haul trucks is anticipated to have a limited impact until 2030, while the large-scale production of battery-electric and fuel cell trucks is foreseen to emerge after 2040.

“According to the International Copper Association, the electrification of haul trucks is anticipated to have a limited impact until 2030, while the large-scale production of battery-electric and fuel cell trucks is foreseen to emerge after 2040. 17”

• cites [17] 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Machinery and auxiliary equipment employed for ore mining and concentration could also be electrified, yet with generally limited mitigation potential due to minor contribution of fuel consumption in mining and concentration to life cycle GHG emissions.

“Machinery and auxiliary equipment employed for ore mining (e.g., front end loaders and drillers) and concentration (e.g., grinding and crushing equipment) could also be electrified, 52 yet with generally limited mitigation potential due to minor contribution of fuel consumption in mining and concentration to life cycle GHG emissions.”

• cites [52] Lezak, 2019, Low-Carbon Metals for a Low-Carbon World: A New Energy Paradigm for Mines, Rocky Mountain InstituteNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pyrohydrolysis, a highly energy-intensive process, has been traditionally used in industry for regenerating hydrochloric acid (key for cobalt sulfate and natural graphite).

“Pyrohydrolysis, a highly energy-intensive process, has been traditionally used in industry for regenerating hydrochloric acid (key for cobalt sulfate and natural graphite). 64”

• cites [64] Agarwal, 2023, Remediation and recycling of inorganic acids and their green alternatives for sustainable industrial chemical processes, Environ. Sci.: Adv.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Renewable heat sources, such as solar and geothermal energy, face significant challenges, including solar intermittency, limited availability (e.g., geothermal energy), and difficulty in achieving the required high temperatures.

“Renewable heat sources, such as solar and geothermal energy, face significant challenges, including solar intermittency, limited availability (e.g., geothermal energy), and difficulty in achieving the required high temperatures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other low-carbon fuel options include biomass and ammonia.

“Other low-carbon fuel options include biomass and ammonia. 60”

• cites [60] Thiel, 2021, To decarbonize industry, we must decarbonize heat, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A 6% energy savings in class 1 nickel production through waste heat recovery has been reported.

“a 6% energy savings in class 1 nickel production through waste heat recovery, 16”

• cites [16] 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CCUS can be applied to fossil fuel-based power and heat cogeneration, addressing two major emission sources while providing baseload power.

“CCUS can be applied to fossil fuel-based power and heat cogeneration, addressing two major emission sources while providing baseload power. 21”

• cites [21] Gailani, 2024, Assessing the potential of decarbonization options for industrial sectors, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

CCUS offers a potential solution for reducing CO2 emissions from various sources, including electricity consumption, process heat, and process emissions.

“CCUS offers a potential solution for reducing CO2 emissions from various sources, including electricity consumption, process heat, and process emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sulfuric acid could be replaced with organic acids such as citric, oxalic, and formic acid, or sulfuric acid recovered from acid mine drainage.

“For example, sulfuric acid could be replaced with organic acids such as citric, oxalic, and formic acid, or sulfuric acid recovered from acid mine drainage. 64,67”

• cites [64] Agarwal, 2023, Remediation and recycling of inorganic acids and their green alternatives for sustainable industrial chemical processes, Environ. Sci.: Adv.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [67] Nleya, 2016, Sustainability assessment of the recovery and utilisation of acid from acid mine drainage, J. Cleaner Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The mitigation potential of emerging circular hydrometallurgical concepts depends on their recovery efficiency and energy requirements, necessitating comprehensive process simulations.

“The mitigation potential of emerging circular hydrometallurgical concepts depends on their recovery efficiency and energy requirements, necessitating comprehensive process simulations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Green hydrogen has generated considerable attention as a more sustainable reducing agent in metallurgy.

“Green hydrogen has generated considerable attention as a more sustainable reducing agent in metallurgy. 27”

• cites [27] Harvey, 2022, Greener reactants, renewable energies and environmental impact mitigation strategies in pyrometallurgical processes: a review, MRS Energy Sustain. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ongoing research explores less energy-intensive hydrochloric acid regeneration methods, including metal sulfate salt crystallization, electrowinning, solvent extraction, and hydrolytic distillation.

“Ongoing research explores less energy-intensive hydrochloric acid regeneration methods, including metal sulfate salt crystallization, electrowinning, solvent extraction, and hydrolytic distillation. 66”

• cites [66] McKinley, 2018, Hydrochloric acid regeneration in hydrometallurgical processes: a review, Miner. Process. Extr. Metall.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Emissions from sodium hydroxide production, used in spodumene-based lithium hydroxide and cobalt sulfate, largely stem from electricity consumption in electrolysis, suggesting potential reductions through a shift to decarbonized power grids or on-site renewable power generation.

“Similarly, emissions from sodium hydroxide production, used in spodumene-based lithium hydroxide and cobalt sulfate, largely stem from electricity consumption in electrolysis, suggesting potential reductions through a shift to decarbonized power grids or on-site renewable power generation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The precipitation of lithium hydroxide with calcium hydroxide generates large amounts of solid calcium carbonate, which is often discarded.

“The precipitation of lithium hydroxide with calcium hydroxide generates large amounts of solid calcium carbonate, which is often discarded. 65”

• cites [65] Hou, 2023, Solubility and Thermodynamic Analysis of Lithium Hydroxide in Lye System, Russ. J. Inorg. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Biomass-based materials such as wood waste or biochar have been proposed as promising alternatives because they are compatible with current infrastructure relying on solid reducing agents.

“Biomass-based materials such as wood waste or biochar have also been proposed as promising alternatives because they are compatible with current infrastructure relying on solid reducing agents. 75”

• cites [75] Sommerfeld, 2021, Replacing Fossil Carbon in the Production of Ferroalloys with a Focus on Bio-Based Carbon: A Review, Minerals sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The mitigation potential of reagent substitution depends not only on the GHG emissions intensity of producing alternative reagents but also on their performance relative to the benchmark.

“The mitigation potential of reagent substitution depends not only on the GHG emissions intensity of producing alternative reagents but also on their performance relative to the benchmark.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The decarbonization of LIB raw materials could largely benefit from the decarbonization of the chemical industry.

“Beyond minimizing consumption or replacing certain reagents, the decarbonization of LIB raw materials could largely benefit from the decarbonization of the chemical industry.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CO2 captured from flue gas generated by burning fossil fuels for process heat generation has been proposed as a substitute for soda ash in the precipitation of lithium carbonate.

“CO2, which can be captured from the flue gas generated by burning fossil fuels for process heat generation, has been proposed as a substitute for soda ash in the precipitation of lithium carbonate. 68”

• cites [68] Kim, 2024, Carbon dioxide utilization in lithium carbonate precipitation: A short review, Environ. Eng. Res.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Opportunities for further improvements exist for every commodity.

“Nonetheless, opportunities for further improvements exist for every commodity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The chemical industry is actively pursuing renewable electricity sources, electrification of heating, and renewable carbon feedstocks.

“The chemical industry is actively pursuing renewable electricity sources, electrification of heating, and renewable carbon feedstocks. 71-73”

• cites [71] Mallapragada, 2023, Decarbonization of the chemical industry through electrification: Barriers and opportunities, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [72] Woodall, 2022, Technology options and policy design to facilitate decarbonization of chemical manufacturing, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [73] Bauer, 2023, Mapping GHG emissions and prospects for renewable energy in the chemical industry, Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A previous LCA demonstrated that replacing coal with biochar could reduce GHG emissions by 45% in ferronickel smelting.

“For example, a previous LCA demonstrated that replacing coal with biochar could reduce GHG emissions by 45% in ferronickel smelting. 76”

• cites [76] Norgate, 2011, Assessing the energy and greenhouse gas footprints of nickel laterite processing, Miner. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Often, these innovations aim to maximize material recovery.

“Often, these innovations aim to maximize material recovery.”

May combine two claims.

For other commodities, refining processes often achieve recovery rates above 90%, while the concentration stage remains relatively inefficient, with recovery rates of around 40%-60% for lithium extraction from brines, 66% for lithium extraction from spodumene, 55% for cobalt, and 79% for nickel.

“For other commodities, refining processes often achieve recovery rates above 90%, 82 while the concentration stage remains relatively inefficient, with recovery rates of around 40%-60% for lithium extraction from brines, 66% for lithium extraction from spodumene, 55% for cobalt, and 79% for nickel. 82,83”

• cites [82] Nassar, 2022, Rock-to-Metal Ratio: A Foundational Metric for Understanding Mine Wastes, Environ. Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [83] Nicolaci, 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The concentration stage often has a minor influence on life cycle GHG emissions (e.g., as in spodumene-based lithium hydroxide or nickel sulfate production), limiting the mitigation potential of this strategy.

“Moreover, the concentration stage often has a minor influence on life cycle GHG emissions (e.g., as in spodumene-based lithium hydroxide or nickel sulfate production), limiting the mitigation potential of this strategy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is growing interest in using biomass as a precursor for producing battery-grade graphite, which offers an alternative to the energy-intensive natural and synthetic graphite production routes.

“There is also growing interest in using biomass as a precursor for producing battery-grade graphite, which offers an alternative to the energy-intensive natural and synthetic graphite production routes. 90”

• cites [90] Dolega, 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Bio-leaching operates at atmospheric pressure, potentially reducing electricity consumption, and does not require acids.

“This process operates at atmospheric pressure, potentially reducing electricity consumption, and does not require acids. 88,89”

• cites [88] Carpen, 2022, Enhancement of nickel laterite ore bioleaching by Burkholderia sp. using a factorial design, Appl. Water Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [89] Hosseini Nasab, 2020, Indirect bioleaching of Co and Ni from iron rich laterite ore, using metabolic carboxylic acids generated by P. putida, P. koreensis, P. bilaji and A. niger, Hydrometallurgy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Improved processes have been proposed in the scientific literature, capable of increasing yields up to 80% while simultaneously reducing energy consumption.

“Improved processes have been proposed in the scientific literature, capable of increasing yields up to 80% while simultaneously reducing energy consumption. 81”

• cites [81] Biber, 2023, Improved production process with new spheroidization machine with high efficiency and low energy consumption for rounding natural graphite for Li-ion battery applications, Carbon sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Ore pre-concentration techniques like dense media separation, gravity separation, magnetic separation, electrostatic separation, and flotation could increase the recovery rate, yet it remains uncommon largely due to complex mineralogies.

“Ore pre-concentration techniques like dense media separation, gravity separation, magnetic separation, electrostatic separation, and flotation could increase the recovery rate, yet it remains uncommon largely due to complex mineralogies. 84”

• cites [84] Quast, 2015, Preconcentration strategies in the processing of nickel laterite ores Part 1: Literature review, Miner. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A prior LCA demonstrated that achieving an 80% micronizing yield could reduce the life cycle GHG emissions of synthetic graphite by about 23%.

“A prior LCA demonstrated that achieving an 80% micronizing yield could reduce the life cycle GHG emissions of synthetic graphite by about 23%. 44”

• cites [44] Carrère, 2024, Carbon footprint assessment of manufacturing of synthetic graphite battery anode material for electric mobility applications, J. Energy StorageNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

For CO2 utilization, on-site demand is preferable, but this is limited for LIB raw materials production processes, except for substituting soda ash in lithium hydroxide production.

“For CO2 utilization, on-site demand is preferable, but this is limited for LIB raw materials production processes, except for substituting soda ash in lithium hydroxide production.”

May combine two claims.

Various DLE concepts are currently being tested at scale, with commercial implementation expected between 2025 and 2030.

“Various DLE concepts are currently being tested at scale, with commercial implementation expected between 2025 and 2030. 83”

• cites [83] Nicolaci, 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reprocessing of mining waste and tailings represents another relevant strategy for improving material recovery, especially for cobalt and nickel.

“It is worth mentioning that reprocessing of mining waste and tailings represents another relevant strategy for improving material recovery, especially for cobalt and nickel. 85”

• cites [85] Kinnunen, 2022, A review of circular economy strategies for mine tailings, Cleaner Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Additional operational challenges for CCUS include the need for access to CO2 geological storage sites (likely unavailable at most mining and refining locations) and the complex supply chain of transporting and injecting CO2.

“Additional operational challenges include the need for access to CO2 geological storage sites (likely unavailable at most mining and refining locations) 78 and the complex supply chain of transporting and injecting CO2. 79”

• cites [78] Lane, 2021, Uncertain storage prospects create a conundrum for carbon capture and storage ambitions, Nat. Clim. Chang. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [79] Bui, 2018, Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward, Energy Environ. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Leveraging a decarbonized power grid provides access to low-carbon electricity without major investments from mining and metal companies, though this approach is constrained by the uneven global progress in power sector decarbonization and may be impractical for isolated production sites.

“Leveraging a decarbonized power grid provides access to low-carbon electricity without major investments from mining and metal companies, though this approach is constrained by the uneven global progress in power sector decarbonization and may be impractical for isolated production sites.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A portfolio of CDR technologies is available for compensating emissions, including BECCS, DACCS, forestation, soil carbon sequestration, biochar, ocean fertilization, and enhanced rock weathering.

“In addition to available strategies for reducing GHG emissions, a portfolio of CDR technologies is available for compensating emissions. These include bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), direct air capture and storage (DACCS), forestation, soil carbon sequestration, biochar, ocean fertilization, and enhanced rock weathering. 93”

• cites [93] Sovacool, 2023, Reviewing the sociotechnical dynamics of carbon removal, Joule sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Even with technological advancements, mineral carbonation will require long intergenerational timeframes, rendering this strategy less relevant in the short- and medium-term but potentially impactful over decades or centuries.

“Even with technological advancements, mineral carbonation will require long intergenerational timeframes, rendering this strategy less relevant in the short- and medium-term but potentially impactful over decades or centuries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Companies like BHP Nickel are already exploring methods for exploiting the CDR potential of tailings.

“Companies like BHP Nickel are already exploring methods for exploiting the CDR potential of tailings. 96”

• cites [96] 2020, Unlocking the potential of mineral carbonation, BHPNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Globally, the CDR potential based on current tailings production volumes is estimated at 290-642, 0.002-0.02, and 14-175 Mt CO2 year-1 for copper-cobalt, nickel laterite, and nickel sulfide deposits, respectively.

“Globally, the CDR potential based on current tailings production volumes is estimated at 290-642, 0.002-0.02, and 14-175 Mt CO2 year 1 for copper-cobalt, nickel laterite, and nickel sulfide deposits, respectively.”

• cites [95] Bullock, 2021, Global Carbon Dioxide Removal Potential of Waste Materials From Metal and Diamond Mining, Front. Clim. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Despite the promising mitigation potential of emerging technologies, most are still in the early development stages and far from industrial deployment.

“However, despite the promising mitigation potential of emerging technologies, most are still in the early development stages and far from industrial deployment.”

May combine two claims.

The estimated CDR potential of tailings associated with LIB raw materials reaches 200-250 kg CO2 t-1 for sediment-hosted copper-cobalt deposits, 10-30 kg CO2 t-1 for nickel laterite deposits, and 140-990 kg CO2 t-1 for nickel sulfide deposits.

“The estimated CDR potential of tailings associated with LIB raw materials reaches 200-250 kg CO2 t 1 for sediment-hosted copper-cobalt deposits, 10-30 kg CO2 t 1 for nickel laterite deposits, and 140-990 kg CO2 t 1 for nickel sulfide deposits. 95”

• cites [95] Bullock, 2021, Global Carbon Dioxide Removal Potential of Waste Materials From Metal and Diamond Mining, Front. Clim. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The overall mitigation potential of decarbonizing electricity consumption elsewhere might be limited, as upstream production processes other than reagents production contribute relatively little to the life cycle GHG emissions.

“However, the overall mitigation potential might be limited, as upstream production processes other than reagents production contribute relatively little to the life cycle GHG emissions.”

May combine two claims.

This ''green relocation'' can offer competing benefits such as cost savings, infrastructure availability, and political and economic stability, and aligns with regulatory frameworks like the European Critical Raw Materials Act's goal for the EU to domestically process 40% of its demand for strategic raw materials.

“This ''green relocation'' can offer competing benefits such as cost savings, infrastructure availability, and political and economic stability, 97 and aligns with regulatory frameworks like the European Critical Raw Materials Act's goal for the EU to domestically process 40% of its demand for strategic raw materials. 98”

• cites [97] Verpoort, 2024, Impact of global heterogeneity of renewable energy supply on heavy industrial production and green value chains, Nat. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [98] Hool, 2024, Challenges and opportunities of the European Critical Raw Materials Act, Miner. Econ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The mining and metal sector typically operates under a continuous operation model, which necessitates a constant electric load.

“The mining and metal sector typically operates under a continuous operation model, which necessitates a constant electric load. 61”

• cites [61]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The decarbonization of the chemical industry would also raise reagent prices, potentially impacting battery-grade raw material prices.

“Moreover, the decarbonization of the chemical industry would also raise reagent prices, potentially impacting battery-grade raw material prices.”

May combine two claims.

Transitioning to renewable electricity under this business model requires either grid connection, backup generators, or battery energy storage systems (BESS).

“Therefore, transitioning to renewable electricity under this business model requires either grid connection, backup generators, or battery energy storage systems (BESS).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In addition to electricity consumed for on-site operations and reagents production, electricity consumption elsewhere in other sectors of the global economy also affects the life cycle GHG emissions associated with LIB raw materials.

“In addition to electricity consumed for on-site operations and reagents production, electricity consumption elsewhere in other sectors of the global economy also affects the life cycle GHG emissions associated with LIB raw materials.”

May combine two claims.

The uncertainty for synthetic graphite primarily arises from the reliance on expert assumptions and estimates in part of the LCI dataset, coupled with variability in GHG emissions associated with the electricity mix.

“This uncertainty primarily arises from the reliance on expert assumptions and estimates in part of the LCI dataset, 44 coupled with variability in GHG emissions associated with the electricity mix.”

• cites [44] Carrère, 2024, Carbon footprint assessment of manufacturing of synthetic graphite battery anode material for electric mobility applications, J. Energy StorageNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carbon pricing has proven effective in reducing industry GHG emissions.

“While carbon pricing has proven effective in reducing industry GHG emissions, 105”

• cites [105] Döbbeling-Hildebrandt, 2024, Systematic review and meta-analysis of ex-post evaluations on the effectiveness of carbon pricing, Nat. Commun. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Residual GHG emissions from industry are frequently identified as a major obstacle to achieving the target of limiting global warming to well below 2 C.

“This finding is significant, as residual GHG emissions from industry are frequently identified as a major obstacle to achieving the target of limiting global warming to well below 2 C. 109,110”

• cites [109] Buck, 2023, Why residual emissions matter right now, Nat. Clim. Chang. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [110] Luderer, 2018, Residual fossil CO2 emissions in 1.5–2 °C pathways, Nat. Clim. Change sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By early 2028, the EU will prevent entry into the market for batteries whose carbon footprint is larger than a maximum threshold (still to be defined).

“By early 2028, the EU will additionally prevent entry into the market for those batteries whose carbon footprint is larger than a (still to be defined) ''maximum threshold.''”

• cites [104] 2023, Regulation (EU). 2023/ of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2023 concerning batteries and waste batteries, amending Directive 2008/98/EC and Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and repealing Directive 2006/66/EC., Official Journal of the European UnionNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mitigation potentials are highly variable depending on the LCI data, underscoring the importance of high-quality data in developing decarbonization strategies.

“Overall, these findings highlight that mitigation potentials are highly variable depending on the LCI data, underscoring the importance of high-quality data in developing decarbonization strategies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Energy transition metals may be less affected by a global carbon tax compared with sectors like energy or agriculture, owing to the high economic value of metal commodities per unit of carbon emission.

“previous studies suggest that energy transition metals may be less affected by a global carbon tax compared with sectors like energy or agriculture, owing to the high economic value of metal commodities per unit of carbon emission. 106”

• cites [106] Cox, 2022, The mining industry as a net beneficiary of a global tax on carbon emissions, Commun. Earth Environ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

CCS is often considered the main option for decarbonizing hard-to-abate chemicals.

“CCS is often considered the main option for decarbonizing such hard-to-abate chemicals, which has not been considered in our scenario. 107”

• cites [107] Simoni, 2022, Decarbonising the lime industry: State-of-the-art, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mitigation potential presented in Figure 4 is highly ambitious, as it assumes a supply chain entirely powered by wind energy.

“However, the mitigation potential presented in Figure 4 is already highly ambitious, based on a supply chain entirely powered by wind energy.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Renewable electricity is provided by 3 MW onshore wind turbines paired with lithium-iron phosphate (LFP) batteries.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The integrated wind-BESS system provides electricity for all mining, concentration, refining, and reagent production processes, as well as for powering electrified process heat.

May combine two claims.

The limited reduction in GHG emissions from lithium hydroxide production (9%-10%) from decarbonizing the chemical industry arises because quicklime production generates a large amount of CO2 during limestone decomposition that is not alleviated by renewable electricity and electrified heat.

“This discrepancy arises because the production of the key reagent for lithium hydroxide, quicklime, generates a large amount of CO2 during limestone decomposition that is not alleviated by a switch to renewable electricity and electrified heat.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The IEA forecasts a 40% reduction in the upfront costs of utility-scale BESS by 2030.

“the IEA forecasting a 40% reduction in the upfront costs of utility-scale BESS by 2030. 103”

• cites [103] 2024Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Recycling has the potential to reduce 20%-23% of the demand for lithium by 2050, 26%-44% for cobalt, and 22%-38% for nickel.

“For example, a previous study determined that recycling has the potential to reduce 20%-23% of the demand for lithium by 2050, 26%-44% for cobalt, and 22%-38% for nickel. 120”

• cites [120] Xu, 2020, Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries, Commun. Mater. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The emergence of post-LIB chemistries, such as sodium-ion batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, or solid-state batteries, may mitigate the demand for lithium and cobalt.

“For example, the emergence of post-LIB chemistries, such as sodium-ion batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, or solid-state batteries, may mitigate the demand for lithium and cobalt. 118”

• cites [118] Duffner, 2021, Post-lithium-ion battery cell production and its compatibility with lithium-ion cell production infrastructure, Nat. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Residual emissions that cannot be mitigated would need to be compensated via CDR from the atmosphere.

“Residual emissions that cannot be mitigated would need to be compensated via CDR from the atmosphere.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The projected demand by 2030 is met by the decarbonized production routes analyzed in the study.

May combine two claims.

These findings align with our analysis of the 2020 technology mix, although the importance of decarbonizing reagents production will become more pronounced with increased HPAL use.

“These findings align with our analysis of the 2020 technology mix, although the importance of decarbonizing reagents production will become more pronounced with increased HPAL use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Strategies like using smaller vehicles or extending the lifetime of batteries can further contribute to reducing demand for LIB raw materials.

“Strategies like using smaller vehicles or extending the lifetime of batteries can further contribute to reducing demand for LIB raw materials. 119”

• cites [119] Aguilar Lopez, 2023, Evaluating strategies for managing resource use in lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles using the global MATILDA model, Resour. Conserv. Recy. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A potential rise in laterite ore processing via rotary kiln electric furnace may shift decarbonization priorities toward low-carbon electricity and alternative reducing agents.

“A potential rise in laterite ore processing via rotary kiln electric furnace may also shift decarbonization priorities toward low-carbon electricity and alternative reducing agents. 116”

• cites [116] Tijsseling, 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A net-zero roadmap for copper and nickel mining determined that 10% of 2020 industry's GHG emissions need to be compensated via CDR to reach carbon-neutrality.

“For example, a net-zero roadmap for copper and nickel mining determined that 10% of 2020 industry's GHG emissions need to be compensated via CDR to reach carbon-neutrality. 16”

• cites [16] 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The decarbonization scenario quantified in this study is highly illustrative because it assumes the LIB raw materials supply chain and chemical industry are fully powered by wind energy with battery storage.

“Therefore, the decarbonization scenario quantified in this study is highly illustrative as it envisions the LIB raw materials supply chain and chemical industry being fully powered by wind energy with battery storage for dispatchability.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Renewable electricity is provided by 3 MW onshore wind turbines paired with lithium-iron phosphate (LFP) batteries.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The integrated wind-BESS system provides electricity for all mining, concentration, refining, and reagent production processes, as well as for powering electrified process heat.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prior research on the Indonesian HPAL route has shown that GHG emissions mainly stem from on-site electricity consumption (36%), reagents consumption (25%), process heat (22%), and process emissions (13%).

“Prior research on the Indonesian HPAL route has shown that GHG emissions mainly stem from on-site electricity consumption (36%), reagents consumption (25%), process heat (22%), and process emissions (13%). 116”

• cites [116] Tijsseling, 2023Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Producing cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate from deep sea polymetallic nodules could result in 80% and 30% lower life cycle GHG emissions, respectively, compared with conventional routes.

“For example, a prior LCA reported that producing cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate from deep sea polymetallic nodules could result in 80% and 30% lower life cycle GHG emissions, respectively, compared with conventional routes. 117”

• cites [117] Paulikas, 2020, Life cycle climate change impacts of producing battery metals from land ores versus deep-sea polymetallic nodules, J. Cleaner Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Recycling LIBs is a promising pathway for reducing mining while concurrently delivering battery-grade raw materials with lower GHG emissions.

“Recycling LIBs emerges as a promising pathway for reducing mining while concurrently delivering battery-grade raw materials with lower GHG emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Shifting to low-carbon electricity is fundamental to decarbonizing the LIB raw materials supply chain.

“Shifting to low-carbon electricity is fundamental to decarbonizing LIB raw materials supply chain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Secondary production of cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate has been shown to yield GHG emissions intensity 74% and 57% lower compared with primary production.

“Similarly, secondary production of cobalt sulfate and nickel sulfate has been shown to yield GHG emissions intensity 74% and 57% lower compared with primary production. 121”

• cites [121] Ali, 2024, Simulation-based life cycle assessment of secondary materials from recycling of lithium-ion batteries, Resour. Conserv. Recy. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The LCA results reported in Figure 2 may differ from the values reported in the original studies due to different versions of the ecoinvent background database or the combination of LCI data from different sources.

“Note that the LCA results reported in Figure 2 may differ from the values reported in the original studies due to different versions of the ecoinvent background database or the combination of LCI data from different sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The qualitative assessment of mitigation potential is largely based on expert judgment, and the actual mitigation potential may depend on techno-economic, social, and regulatory factors.

“It is important to note that this assessment is largely based on expert judgment and that the actual mitigation potential may depend on techno-economic, social, and regulatory factors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A Monte Carlo sampling method with 1,000 iterations was used to assess the robustness of the estimated mitigation potentials.

“The Monte Carlo sampling method (based on 1,000 iterations) was used to assess the robustness of the estimated mitigation potentials resulting from the propagation of uncertainty related to LCI data.”