Living in “survival mode:” Intergenerational transmission of trauma from the Holodomor genocide of 1932–1933 in Ukraine

Bezo, Brent; Maggi, Stefania

doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.009

Cited by 161Memory, History, Trauma, IdentityMemory, violence, and historyMemory, Trauma, and Commemoration

Living in “survival mode:” Intergenerational transmission of trauma from the Holodomor genocide of 1932–1933 in Ukraine

Bezo, Brent, Maggi, Stefania·2015·Social Science & Medicine

DOI 10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.009

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Abstract

Qualitative methodology was used to investigate the intergenerational impact of the 1932-1933 Holodomor genocide on three generations in 15 Ukrainian families. Each family, residing in Ukraine, consisted of a first generation survivor, a second generation adult child and a third generation adult grandchild of the same line. The findings show that the Holodomor, a genocide that claimed millions of lives by forced starvation, still exerts substantial effects on generations born decades later. Specifically, thematic analysis of the 45 semi-structured, in-depth interviews, done between July and November 2010, revealed that a constellation of emotions, inner states and trauma-based coping strategies emerged in the survivors during the genocide period and were subsequently transmitted into the second and third generations. This constellation, summarized by participants as living in "survival mode," included horror, fear, mistrust, sadness, shame, anger, stress and anxiety, decreased self-worth, stockpiling of food, reverence for food, overemphasis on food and overeating, inability to discard unneeded items, an indifference toward others, social hostility and risky health behaviours. Since both the family and community-society were found to be involved in trauma transmission, the findings highlight the importance of multi-framework approaches for studying and healing collective trauma.

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Specific epigenetic mechanisms were not identified in these reports, although the persistence of these behavioral patterns across generations may reflect stress-response and metabolic adaptation.
“Specific epigenetic mechanisms were not identified in these reports, although the persistence of these behavioral patterns across generations may reflect stress-response and metabolic adaptation (93).”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [93]
Second and third generation descendants of famine-associated genocides such as the Holodomor have reported persistent "survivor mode" behaviors characterized by fear, hypervigilance, food hoarding, and overeating, despite not directly experiencing the original trauma.
“Second and third generation descendants have reported persistent “survivor mode” behaviors characterized by fear, hypervigilance, food hoarding, and overeating, despite not directly experiencing the original trauma (93).”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [93]

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Pol-Lim, S., & Slater, C. L. (2024) · Journal of loss & trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2024.2331735 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This study illustrated how trauma was passed down to later generations and was consistent with the other literature (Bezo & Maggi, 2015; Chhun, 2016; Choau, 2013; Hollander-Goldfein et el., 2012; Kyupelyan, 2016, M € unyas, 2008 and Muong, 2009).”
Echoes of the Holodomor under Russian occupation
Khodakivska, O., Eneida, Ç., Martyniuk, M., Kovalov, M., Dudar, V., & Kotsur, V. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.1080/00207233.2024.2314857 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Bezo and Maggi [25] emphasise that the descendants of the Holodomor victims have an increased risk of developing mental illness, including anxiety disorders and depression [25]; they may experience poorer quality of life, emotional instability and problems in social relationships.”
Background
Does the trauma associated with out-of-home care transmit across generations? Evidence from the 1970 British Cohort Study during a major health pandemic
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“Findings from recent research indicate transgenerational mechanisms of collective trauma, manifesting in PTSD symptoms in direct descendants of collective trauma (Bezo & Maggi, 2015).”
Background
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Santhanam-Martin, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108602105.018 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Kac, E., Qi, Q., & Ryznar, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769422 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Speci ﬁ c epigenetic mechanisms were not identi ﬁ ed in these reports, although the persistence of these behavioral patterns across generations may re ﬂ ect stress-response and metabolic adaptation (93).”
The reverberations of famine: understanding the aftermath of the Holodomor, 1932–1933
Vsetecka, J. (2026) · Journal of Public Health Policy · doi:10.1057/s41271-026-00652-7 · Cited by 1
Introducing “Agriecocide”: Framing War-Related Agricultural Destruction in Ukraine
Pereira, P., Kazak, R., & Kurman, T. (2026) · Earth: Environmental Sustainability · doi:10.53941/eesus.2026.100008 · Cited by 1
Emerging cultural identity in intergenerational trauma interventions: A qualitative study of psychotherapists' perspectives
Krawczykowski, M. S., & Cioffi, M. C. (2026) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2026.100670 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Conflict Continuities
Berckmoes, L. H., de Bruijn, M. D., & Jentzsch, C. (2025) · Conflict and Society · doi:10.3167/arcs.2025.110105 · Cited by 1
Inheriting Hatred? A Systematic Review of the Intergenerational Transmission of Extremist Ideologies
van Wieringen, L., Krüsselmann, K., Weggemans, D., & Liem, M. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03122-y · Cited by 1
“It has been observed that traumatized families feel more connected to the in-group; value community and family ties more; and are less trusting of outsiders (Bezo & Maggi, 2015; Iliceto et al., 2011), which could again explain the ﬁ ndings of this review.”
The impact of maternal premating stress on the postnatal outcomes of offspring in rodent studies: A systematic review
Dory, E. K., Loterstein, Y., Hazani, R., Zalsman, G., & Weller, A. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106114 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…indicating that maternal preconception stress can contribute to children ’ s mental health issues even if the stressor is no longer present (Bezo and Maggi, 2015; Yehuda et al., 1998), suggesting that adverse maternal experience may increase offspring ’ s vulnerability to negative outcomes…”
KUŞAKLARARASI AKTARIM: MÜLTECİ AİLELERİN ÇOCUKLARI TRAVMAYI NASIL MİRAS ALIYORLAR?
Sakarya, H. (2025) · Tıbbi Sosyal Hizmet Dergisi · doi:10.46218/tshd.1425259 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trauma and Healing through Postgenerational Holodomor Survivor Research
Westin, E. (2024) · Life Writing · doi:10.1080/14484528.2024.2409096 · Cited by 1
“The overemphasis on food in these families has been described as a ‘ cult of food ’ , where food as a ‘ primary consideration ’ is passed down from generation to generation (Bezo and Maggi 2015, 91).”
Influential
A measure to gauge psychological pain: Assessing convergent construct validity and internal consistency of the Psychache Scale in the Cambodian context
Pich, P., Lesley, E., Nguyen, Q.-A. N., Higson-Smith, C., & Sieng, S. (2024) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100345 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Beyond the Holodomor: Current hunger in Ukraine and global food insecurity
George, N. S., Okeji, F. O., & Iseghehi, L. (2024) · Public Health Challenges · doi:10.1002/puh2.149 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The importance of addressing intergenerational trauma in refugees
Shoib, S., Armiya'u, A., Swed, S., Naskar, C., Chandradasa, M., Tsagkaris, C., Zaidi, I., & Saeed, F. (2023) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00186-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The issue of the genocide of the Ukrainian people in modern conditions (Historical aspect)
Stadnyk, O., Kuzminets, N. P., Shpytalenko, G., Bryl, K., & Hutsalo, L. (2023) · International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences · doi:10.21833/ijaas.2023.12.010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Soteriology of Suffering: Evangelical Christians in Russia and the Trauma of Political Repression
Mitrofanova, A. V., Ryazanova, S. V., & Benda, R. M. (2020) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel11110591 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…traumas (see: Barocas 1973; Bergmann and Jucovy 1982; Sigal and Weinfeld 1989; Caruth 1991; Hass 1996; Felsen 1998; Grand 2000; Volkan 2001; Apprey 2003; Argenti and Schramm 2010; Schwab 2010; Fromm 2012; Bezo and Maggi 2015; O’Loughlin and Charles 2015; Salberg and Grand 2017; Nir 2018; etc.).”
Background
Supporting Refugee Family Reunification in Exile
Sveaass, N., & Reichelt, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108602105.015 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Exile and Belonging
Guzder, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108602105.012 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Amplifying Our Engagement with Refugee Families Beyond the Therapeutic Space
Rousseau, C., & Haene, L. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108602105.022 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mobilizing Resources in Multifamily Groups
Mooren, T. T. M., & Bala, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108602105.009 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Collective Retraumatisation of Minority and Indigenous Groups During the Global Health Crisis
Olko, J., Lubiewska, K., Maryniak, J., Chromik, B., Skrodzka, M., & Bilewicz, M. (2026) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/00220221261489211
Prevalence of exposure to lifetime and war-related traumas, PTSD and complex PTSD in a sample from the Ukrainian general population
Facer-Irwin, E., Short, R., Murphy, D., Onuch, O., Hale, H. E., Kulyk, V., Biscoe, N., Sasse, G., & MacManus, D. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2697563
“The backdrop of historical trauma (Bezo & Maggi, 2015), the decade-long Russian aggression against Ukraine, and ongoing full-scale invasion since February 2022 have triggered a profound mental health crisis in Ukraine that is expected to worsen as the war continues (Dumchev & Klymchuk, 2024).”
An appraisal–coping framework of collective victimization beliefs and their consequences
Vollhardt, J. R., Jeong, H. Y., Szabó, Z. P., & Elazab, K. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00610-w
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Clinical Blindness to Eating Disorders in Older Adults: A Qualitative Study of Primary Care Nurses’ Perspectives
Muñoz-Ortega, A. V., Juárez, L. M., Willmer, M., Conroy, P., Engström, M., & Caballero, D. C. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14162586
“This phenomenon has been described in contexts beyond the Spanish one, such as the Great Irish Famine [33,34], the Chinese famine of 1959–1961 [35], and the Ukrainian Holodomor [36], where experiences of scarcity left a lasting imprint on individual and collective relationships with food.”
The Psychometric Properties of the Intergenerational Trauma Socialization Inventory: Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma Among Lao American Families
Yasui, M., Jeong, E., & Aronson, S. (2026) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-026-00236-0
“For example, the child may attempt to explain parental experiences of survival (e.g., Braga et al., 2012); help parents cope and manage the effects of trauma (Shafet, 1994); or to manage the experience of guilt, victimization, (Braga et al., 2012), mistrust or fear of others (Bezo & Maggi, 2015).”
Shared Traumatic Reality and Professional Well-Being Among Ukrainian Mental Health Providers Working in Active War Conditions
Shklarski, L., Latzer, Y., & Samolichenko, Y. (2026) · International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters · doi:10.1177/02807270261463557
Secondary psychic traumatization as a way of transmitting transgenerational experience
Solovyova, S. (2026) · Medical Psychology in Russia · doi:10.24884/2219-8245-2026-18-1-2-16
War and wasting: the role of precision nutrition in managing malnutrition and chronic disease in conflict-affected populations
Saber, A. A. (2026) · Precision Nutrition · doi:10.1097/pn9.0000000000000133

Authors: Bezo, B., & Maggi, S.
Affiliations: Carleton University (CA)
Corresponding author: Bezo, Brent
ORCID: Maggi, Stefania
Venue: Social Science & Medicine
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-06
Volume: 134
Pages: 87-94
ISSN: 0277-9536 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.009
OpenAlex: W2009553381
Cited by: 161
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 28.05
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Social Science & Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada's (doctoral fellowship) reference number: (752-2013-2539)
Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program
Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies of the University of Alberta
Topics: Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Memory, History, Trauma, Identity
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Memory, violence, and history
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Memory, Trauma, and Commemoration
Keywords: Holodomor, intergenerational trauma transmission, collective trauma, Ukrainian family, survival mode, food hoarding, overeating, health risk behaviors, guilt and shame
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Ukraine, Intergenerational Relations, Survivors, History, 20th Century, Young Adult, Genocide

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Living in “survival mode:” Intergenerational transmission of trauma from the Holodomor genocide of 1932–1933 in Ukraine

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