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Complex Oscillatory Waves Emerging from Cortical Organoids Model Early Human Brain Network Development
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Abstract
Structural and transcriptional changes during early brain maturation follow fixed developmental programs defined by genetics. However, whether this is true for functional network activity remains unknown, primarily due to experimental inaccessibility of the initial stages of the living human brain. Here, we developed human cortical organoids that dynamically change cellular populations during maturation and exhibited consistent increases in electrical activity over the span of several months. The spontaneous network formation displayed periodic and regular oscillatory events that were dependent on glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling. The oscillatory activity transitioned to more spatiotemporally irregular patterns, and synchronous network events resembled features similar to those observed in preterm human electroencephalography. These results show that the development of structured network activity in a human neocortex model may follow stable genetic programming. Our approach provides opportunities for investigating and manipulating the role of network activity in the developing human cortex.
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“This is in contrast with data obtained using neural organoids in vitro or following transplantation (Mansour et al., 2018, Trujillo et al., 2019), which show highly correlated activity indicative of circuit immaturity.”
From Xenotransplanted human cortical neurons reveal species-specific development and functional integration into mouse visual circuits (2019) · cites this paper as Trujillo et al., 2019
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“With their 3D structures and cell components resembling the human brain, these organoids can replicate the complex brain microenvironment better than 2D in vitro models (15–17, 19)”
From Understanding monocyte-driven neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease using human cortical organoid microphysiological systems (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
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“The cells projected on the UMAP space were annotated using canonical marker genes for neurons, progenitors, intermediate progenitors, astrocytes, other glial cells, and monocytes (17, 84, 85).”
From Understanding monocyte-driven neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease using human cortical organoid microphysiological systems (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
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“Human brain organoids are 3D cultures derived from human pluripotent stem cells and recapitulate native brain cellular components, cytoarchitecture, and exhibit neural activity.22–24”
From Tubular human brain organoids to model microglia-mediated neuroinflammation (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
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“Human brain organoids are emerging as a scaled-down, three-dimensional model of the human brain, mimicking various developmental features, including generation of new neurons by their conversion from radial glia20 and incorporation into neuronal network21.”
From Therapeutically viable generation of neurons with antisense oligonucleotide suppression of PTB (2021) · cites this paper as [21]
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Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786651
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786672
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786666
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Self-citationCourchesne, E., Taluja, V., Nazari, S., Aamodt, C., Pierce, K., Duan, K., Stophaeros, S. L., Lopez, L., Barnes, C. C., Troxel, J., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26725556
Self-citationCourchesne, E., Taluja, V., Nazari, S., Aamodt, C., Pierce, K., Duan, K., Stophaeros, S. L., Lopez, L., Barnes, C. C., Troxel, J., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26725559
Self-citationAdditional file 1 of Evolutionary conservation and divergence of the human brain transcriptome
Pembroke, W. G., Hartl, C., & Geschwind, D. H. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13667952
Additional file 1 of Human cerebral organoids: the ethical stance of scientists
Lavazza, A., & Chinaia, A. A. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26579849
Chen, Z., Yang, Z., Xiaojun, Y. U. A. N., Zhang, X., & Hao, P. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14471346
Additional file 1 of Organoids: a systematic review of ethical issues
de Jongh, D., Massey, E. K., & Bunnik, E. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20364906
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786687
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786663
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786717
Courchesne, E., Taluja, V., Nazari, S., Aamodt, C., Pierce, K., Duan, K., Stophaeros, S. L., Lopez, L., Barnes, C. C., Troxel, J., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26725553
Self-citationCourchesne, E., Taluja, V., Nazari, S., Aamodt, C., Pierce, K., Duan, K., Stophaeros, S. L., Lopez, L., Barnes, C. C., Troxel, J., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26725562
Self-citationFoliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786669
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786675
Additional file 2 of Organoids: a systematic review of ethical issues
de Jongh, D., Massey, E. K., & Bunnik, E. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20364909
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786714
Additional file 13 of Evolutionary conservation and divergence of the human brain transcriptome
Pembroke, W. G., Hartl, C., & Geschwind, D. H. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13667949
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786678
Foliaki, S. T., Schwarz, B. H., Groveman, B. R., Walters, R. O., Ferreira, N. C., Orru, C. D., Smith, A., Wood, A. R., Schmit, O. M., Freitag, P., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16786660
Additional file 1 of Media portrayal of ethical and social issues in brain organoid research
Presley, A., Samsa, L. A., & Dubljević, V. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19588740
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Brain Organoid Research and Public Engagement at the Expo
Duenki, T., ARIMA, M., & Ikeuchi, Y. (2026) · Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering · doi:10.2493/jjspe.92.22
Han, S., Chen, H., Liu, J., Wang, Y., Chen, S., Sun, P., Jiang, J., Zhao, R., Chen, R., Zhang, X., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.06.697853
Zhang, X., Jiang, Y., Wang, H., & Hu, R. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-40423-8.00008-7
Criticality emerges within coherent functional organization in human forebrain organoidsPreprint
Itatani, N., & Zavaglia, M. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8640242/v1
de Assis, D., Pentz, A. B., Osete, J. R., Ievglevskyi, O., Vandenberghe, M., Akkouh, I. A., Mäki‐Marttunen, T., Jönsson, E. G., Andreassen, O. A., Djurovic, S., et al. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-03863-4
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Metadata
- Authors
- Trujillo, C. A., Gao, R., Negraes, P. D., Gu, J., Buchanan, J., Preissl, S., Wang, A., Wu, W., Haddad, G. G., Chaim, I. A., Domissy, A., Vandenberghe, M., Devor, A., Yeo, G. W., Voytek, B., & Muotri, A. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Muotri, Alysson R.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cell Stem Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-10
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 558-569.e7
- ISSN
- 1875-9777 (ISSN-L)
- 1934-5909
- PMC
- PMC6778040
- OpenAlex
- W2970454553
- Cited by
- 974
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 131 · 2025: 148 · 2024: 186 · 2023: 110 · 2022: 131 · 2021: 131 · 2020: 98 · 2019: 32
- FWCI
- 57.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell stem cell (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (DISC1-08825, DISC2-09649)
- Whitehall Foundation (2017-12-73)
- National Institutes of Health (U19MH1073671, R01MH108528, R01MH109885, R01MH100175, R56MH109587, R01MH094753)
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (345469)
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
- University of California, San Diego
- Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (/NIGMS K12 GM068524, K12 GM068524, U19MH1073671)
- Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego
- Spectrum Pharmaceuticals
- National Science Foundation (1736028)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- cortical organoids, human brain development, network activity, glutamatergic signaling, GABAergic neurotransmission, developmental programming, functional brain networks
- MeSH terms
- Biological Clocks, Cells, Cultured, Cerebellar Cortex, gamma-Aminobutyric Acid, Humans, Nerve Net, Synaptic Transmission, Organoids, Signal Transduction, Neocortex, Gene Expression Profiling, Neurogenesis, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, Single-Cell Analysis, Electromagnetic Radiation
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