Cited by 226Estrogen and related hormone effectsReproductive Health and ContraceptionAdrenal Hormones and Disorders

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All progestins are not created equal

Stanczyk, Frank Z·2003·Steroids

DOI 10.1016/j.steroids.2003.08.003

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Abstract

A variety of progestins are available for therapeutic use. It is convenient to classify them into those related in chemical structure to progesterone or testosterone. Progestins related to progesterone can be subdivided into pregnanes and 19-norpregnanes, whereas those related to testosterone can be subdivided into those with and without a 17-ethinyl group. 17-Ethinylated progestins consist of the families of norethindrone (estranes) and levonorgestrel (13-ethylgonanes). Progestins administered orally undergo extensive hepatic first pass metabolism primarily by reduction and conjugation, and in most instances, relatively high progestin doses are required for therapeutic use. There are limited reliable data on the pharmacokinetics of most progestins. Some progestins are prodrugs, requiring transformation prior to exhibiting progestational activity. Qualitative and quantitative tests utilizing either human or animal species have been used to establish progestin potency. However, profound differences in progestational activity are often observed between human and animal tissues. Also, there is a misconception about androgenicity of progestins due largely to extrapolation of data from rat studies to the human. Progestins differ widely in their chemical structures, structure-function relationships, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and potencies; they are not created equal.

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Formulation and characterization of norethisterone transdermal patch as an alternative route to oral administration
Gönüllü, Ü., & Şaki, D. (2018) · Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.4314/tjpr.v16i12.1 · Cited by 5
“Norethisterone (NE) is a potent synthetic progestogen which is used for the treatment of dysfunctional bleeding by shifting the time of menstruation [1,2].”
Background
Biotransformation of Δ1-Progesterone Using Selected Entomopathogenic Filamentous Fungi and Prediction of Its Products’ Bioactivity
Panek, A., Wójcik, P., Świzdor, A., Szaleniec, M., & Janeczko, T. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25010508 · Cited by 5
“Progesterone is rapidly and extensively metabolized in the human body, mainly in the liver, but also in the brain, skin, and various other extrahepatic tissues [7,8].”
Background
Lowering oral contraceptive norethindrone dose increases estrogen and progesterone receptor levels with no reduction in proliferation of breast epithelium: a randomized trial
Hovanessian‐Larsen, L., Taylor, D., Hawes, D., SPICER, D. V., Press, M. F., Wu, A. H., Pike, M. C., & Pearce, C. L. (2012) · Contraception · doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.12.015 · Cited by 5
“A 10-mg dose of MPA is generally considered as approximately equivalent to a 1-mg dose of NET [10], so the doses being considered in these OCs are roughly comparable to the doses of MPA in sequential and continuous-combined EPT.”
Method
Progestogens: effects on clinical and biochemical parameters in postmenopausal women
Archer, D. F. (2005) · Menopause The Journal of The North American Menopause Society · doi:10.1097/01.gme.0000177319.31629.52 · Cited by 5
The importance of pharmacokinetic studies in drug development
Archer, D. F. (2013) · Contraception · doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2013.04.004 · Cited by 5
RETRACTED ARTICLE: Acute and chronic toxicity of the pharmaceutical levonorgestrel to the freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna
Oropesa, A. L., Guimarães, L., Martins, A., Rodríguez, F. S., & Guilhermino, L. M. (2011) · Ecotoxicology · doi:10.1007/s10646-011-0824-9 · Cited by 4
Retracted
Progestógenos: farmacologia e uso clínico
Vigo, F. M., Lubianca, J. N., & Corleta, H. V. E. (2011) · Cited by 4
Human versus non-human sex steroid use in hormone replacement therapies part 1: Preclinical data
Atwood, C., & Ekstein, S. F. (2018) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2018.10.003 · Cited by 4
A detailed review of pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of progestogens in oral contraception
GASPARD, U. J., Chatel, G., Douxfils, J., & Stanczyk, F. Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2026.1730768 · Cited by 3
Data-Driven Electrochemistry Reveals the Impact of Hydrophobicity on Aptamer Cross-Reactivity
Carroll, E., Pence, M. A., Winterholler, E., Sparks, T. D., & Minteer, S. D. (2026) · ACS Measurement Science Au · doi:10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.6c00040 · Cited by 3
“26 Progesterone expression fluctuates throughout the reproductive cycle, regulating ovulation, and is essential in supporting early pregnancy.”
Use of Dienogest or Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Agonist with Add back Hormone Therapy in Longterm Endometriosis Medical Management
Kaur, K. K. (2018) · Open Access Journal of Gynecology · doi:10.23880/oajg-16000151 · Cited by 2
Sex differences in kidney and lung status in an animal model of brain death
Vidal‐dos‐Santos, M., Armstrong, R., van Zyl, M., Ricardo‐da‐Silva, F. Y., da Anunciação, L. F., Ramos, M. M. D. A., Correia, C. D. J., Ottens, P. J., Moreira, L. F. P., Leuvenink, H. G. D., et al. (2025) · Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.clinsp.2025.100623 · Cited by 3
“Progesterone is strongly susceptible to enzymatic reduction and is rapidly transformed into subproducts that take part in the synthesis of other steroid hormones, 24 whereas estradiol is converted from testosterone and estrone much later in the pathway.”
Adverse childhood experiences and hormonal contraception: Interactive impact on sexual reward function
Novick, A. M., Stoddard, J., Johnson, R. L., Duffy, K. A., Berkowitz, L. N., Costa, V. D., Sammel, M. D., & Epperson, C. N. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279764 · Cited by 4
Establishment of a steroid binding assay for goldfish membrane progesterone receptor (mPR) by coupling with graphene quantum dots (GQDs)
Hossain, M. F., Hossain, S., Jyoti, M. M. S., Omori, Y., & Tokumoto, T. (2024) · Fish Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/s10695-024-01315-8 · Cited by 3
“Progesterone, together with the sex steroid estrogen, is crucial for controlling the menstrual cycle in humans (Stanczyk 2003).”
A Review of Recent Findings for Obstetricians about Combined Oral Contraceptive Pills
Aminimoghaddam, S. (2017) · Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology and Cancer Research · doi:10.5812/jogcr.11200 · Cited by 3
Medication Interactions with Contraceptives
Perry, R., Stone, R. H., & Haider, S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1233-9_20 · Cited by 2
Role of Progestins in Reproduction
Onyeso, G. I., David, J., Egwu, M., & Welcome, M. O. (2024) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1007931 · Cited by 2
Association between depressive symptoms and dienogest in patients treated for endometriosis: Using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
Park, Y., Bae, N., Choo, S. P., Lee, I., Lee, J. H., Kim, Y. J., Cho, S., Choi, Y. S., & Shin, J. (2025) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2025.114540 · Cited by 2
Hormonal contraceptive use in relation to basal and reactive testosterone, DHEAS, and cortisol
Casto, K. V., Farah, S., Castro, A., Akinola, M., & Mehta, P. H. (2025) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2025.105806 · Cited by 2
Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Inhibits Tumorigenesis in Mouse Models of Oviductal High-Grade Serous Carcinoma
Zhai, Y., Bedi, K., WU, R. T., Feng, Y., Green, M. E., Pearce, C. L., Pike, M. C., Fearon, E. R., & Cho, K. R. (2025) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers17213456 · Cited by 2
“Importantly, as noted by Stanczyk over two decades ago, all progestins are not created equal [39].”
Recent patent trends in the field of progesterone receptor agonists and modulators
Schmees, N., & Weinmann, H. (2009) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents · doi:10.1517/13543770903312946 · Cited by 2
“A very different structural class of molecules was discovered by Organon [73,74], based on the tetrahydro-1[H]-dibenzo[b,f ] pyrido[1,2-d][1,4]oxazepine scaffold.”
Background
Cholestasis, Contraceptives, and Free Radicals
Fernández‐Martínez, E. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804274-8.00018-7 · Cited by 2
A case of multifocal central serous chorioretinopathy from a progestin-only contraceptive device
Shen, E., Tsao, S. W., Kuppermann, B. D., & Lu, S. (2019) · New Frontiers in Ophthalmology · doi:10.15761/nfo.1000235 · Cited by 2
Effects of Treatment With Premarin Alone and the Combination of Premarin + Beclomethasone in Vaginal Involvement of GVHD After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
Yaraghi, M., Noorafrooz, M., Motezarre, M., & Mousavi, S. A. (2025) · Transplantation Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2025.03.021 · Cited by 1
Does Timing of Oral Contraceptive Pill Intake Affect Physical Performance-Related Parameters? A Randomized Crossover-Controlled Study
Andersen, M. B., Josefsen, M. E., Rasmussen, K. D., & Hansen, M. (2025) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2024-0536 · Cited by 1
LC-MS/MS quantitation of the primary reduced metabolites of progesterone in serum during the third trimester of human pregnancy reveals a potential role for 20β-hydroxyprogesterone and 5β-dihydroprogesterone in functional progesterone withdrawal
Hinchliffe, E., & Heazell, A. E. P. (2025) · Steroids · doi:10.1016/j.steroids.2025.109724 · Cited by 1
Gestagen versus oral contraceptive pills to induce withdrawal bleeding before induction of ovulation by clomiphene citrate in polycystic ovary syndrome
Orief, Y. I., Darwish, E. A. E., Elsamra, M. A., & Ragab, D. H. A. (2013) · Middle East Fertility Society Journal · doi:10.1016/j.mefs.2013.06.003 · Cited by 1
How does oral contraception affect mood
Pluchino, N., Caruso, A., & Daino, D. (2012) · Cited by 1
Proliferation of the Fallopian Tube Fimbriae and Cortical Inclusion Cysts: Effects of the Menstrual Cycle and the Levonorgestrel Intrauterine Contraceptive System
Park, K. J., Broach, V. A., Dennis, S., Linkov, I., Stanczyk, F. Z., Patel, P., Jotwani, A. R., Pearce, C. L., Pike, M. C., & Kauff, N. D. (2022) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-22-0217 · Cited by 1
Advances in Sources, Content Determination, and Bioactivity of 20α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Li, L., Yan, S., Cheng, Y., Zhong, C., Chen, C., & Gao, X. (2025) · Endocrine Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/0118715303302957250117052100 · Cited by 1
Hospital Wastewater Treatment with Pilot-Scale Pulsed Corona Discharge for Removal of Pharmaceutical Residues
(2018) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2018.06.013 · Cited by 1
Hormonal Contraception and Mood
Rapkin, A. J., & Sonalkar, S. (2011) · Contraception · doi:10.1002/9781444342642.ch20 · Cited by 1
Comparative study of the molecular mechanism of action of the synthetic progestins, Medroxyprogesterone acetate and Norethisterone acetate
Africander, D. (2010) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 1
Oral contraceptive androgenicity and cognitive performance among women
Alvarez, K., & Spiers, M. (2014) · doi:10.17918/etd-4454 · Cited by 1
Hormonal Contraception and Mood
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Progesterone Receptor Isoforms : functional Selectivity and Pharmacological Targeting
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Cinética de liberação de progesterona em dispositivos confeccionados a partir de blendas com PCL (Poli-ɛ-caprolactona) + PHB (Poli-hidroxibutirato)
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Authors: Stanczyk, F. Z.
Affiliations: University of Southern California (US)
Corresponding author: Stanczyk, Frank Z
ORCID: Stanczyk, Frank Z
Venue: Steroids
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2003-11
Volume: 68
Issue: 10-13
Pages: 879-890
ISSN: 0039-128X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2003.08.003
OpenAlex: W2037043326
Cited by: 226
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 8
FWCI: 2.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Steroids (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Reproductive Health and Contraception
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
Keywords: progestins, progesterone derivatives, testosterone derivatives, pregnane derivatives, norethisterone, levonorgestrel, hepatic first-pass metabolism, prodrugs, structure-function relationship, androgenic activity, pharmacokinetics
MeSH terms: Animals, Female, Humans, Liver, Models, Chemical, Norethindrone, Pregnanes, Progestins, Structure-Activity Relationship, Time Factors, Levonorgestrel, Rats

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All progestins are not created equal

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