Exposure levels to brominated compounds in seawater swimming pools treated with chlorine
Abstract
Despite evidence of formation of brominated compounds in seawater swimming pools treated with chlorine, no data about exposure levels to these compounds have been reported. To address this issue, a survey has been carried out in four establishments (representing 8 pools) fed with seawater and devoted to relaxing and cure treatments (thalassotherapy centres located in Southeast of France). Carcinogenic and mutagenic brominated disinfection byproducts (trihalomethanes -THM- and halogenated acetic acids -HAA-) were quantified at varying levels, statistically related to organic loadings brought by bathers, and not from marine organic matter, and also linked to activities carried out in the pools (watergym vs swimming). Bromoform and dibromoacetic acid, the most abundant THM and HAA detected, were measured at levels up to 18-fold greater than the maximum contaminant levels of 60 and 80 μg/L fixed by US.EPA in drinking waters. The correlations between these disinfection byproducts and other environmental factors such as nitrogen, pH, temperature, free residual chlorine, UV(254), chloride and bromide concentrations, and daily frequentation were examined. Because thalassotherapy and seawater swimming pools (hotels, cruise ships,…) are increasing in use around the world and because carcinogenic and mutagenic brominated byproducts may be produced in chlorinated seawater swimming pools, specific care should be taken to assure cleanliness of users (swimmers and patients taking the waters) and to increase water circulation through media filters to reduce levels of brominated byproducts.
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Disinfection by-product concentrations in swimming pool waters are often much or even several orders of magnitude higher than the maximum contaminant levels in drinking water or swimming pool water.
“The DBP concentrations in SPWs are often much or even several orders of magnitude higher than the MCLs in DWs or SPWs (Kanan et al., 2015;Parinet et al., 2012;Simard et al., 2013;Yang et al., 2016).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Parinet et al., 2012
The formation of more toxic brominated disinfection by-products (e.g., bromoform, dibromoacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid) is substantial in seawater pools.
“Parinet et al. (2012) pointed out that the formation of more toxic Br-DBPs (e.g., bromoform, dibromoacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid) was substantial in seawater pools.”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Parinet et al., 2012
The high trihalomethane concentration (bromoform accounts for ~94%) in the French study is mainly attributed to the use of bromide-rich seawater (68.1-106.7 mg/L as Br-) as the pool filling water.
“The high THM concentration (CHBr 3 accounts for ~94%) in this study is mainly attributed to the use of bromide-rich seawater (68.1-106.7 mg/L as Br -) as the pool filling water (Parinet et al., 2012)”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Parinet et al., 2012
France only permits the use of chlorine-based disinfectants in public pools since 2011.
“For example, France only permits the use of chlorine-based disinfectants (e.g., sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite or stabilized chlorine) in public pools since 2011 (Parinet et al., 2012).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Parinet et al., 2012
Cites
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Volatile disinfection by-product analysis from chlorinated indoor swimming pools
Weaver, W. A., Li, J., Wen, Y., Johnston, J., Blatchley, M. R., & Blatchley III, E. R. (2009) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.04.035 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Genotoxic effects in swimmers exposed to disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pools
Kogevinas, M., Villanueva, C. M., Font-Ribera, L., Liviac, D., Bustamante, M., Espinoza, F., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Espinosa, A., Fernandez, P., DeMarini, D. M., et al. (2010) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1001959 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
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“These brominated compounds tend to display greater toxicity than their chlorinated analogs (Hsu et al., 2001; Richardson et al., 2007; Fabricino and Korshin, 2009; Lee et al., 2009).”
BackgroundThe good, the bad, and the volatile: can we have both healthy pools and healthy people?
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Water Analysis: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues
Richardson, S. D., & Ternes, T. A. (2014) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac500508t · Cited by 2,144 · see citing works
Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs
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Yang, L., Chen, X., She, Q., Cao, G., Liu, Y., Chang, V. W.-C., & Tang, C. Y. (2018) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
- Authors
- Parinet, J., Tabaries, S., Coulomb, B., Vassalo, L., & Boudenne, J.-L.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Conseil départemental des Bouches-du-Rhône (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Boudenne, Jean-Luc
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-03
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 828-836
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1980496648
- Cited by
- 86
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
- Keywords
- brominated disinfection byproducts, trihalomethanes, halogenated acetic acids, bromoform, dibromoacetic acid, chlorine disinfection, human exposure, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Carbon, Chlorine, Environmental Exposure, Seawater, Swimming Pools, Ultraviolet Rays, Bromine Compounds, Statistics, Nonparametric, Acetic Acid, Trihalomethanes
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