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An experimental investigation of the role of safety-seeking behaviours in the maintenance of panic disorder with agoraphobia
Abstract
This study evaluates the hypothesis that safety-seeking behaviours play an important role in maintaining anxiety because they prevent patients from benefiting from disconfirmatory experience. Patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia carried out a behaviour test, closely followed by an experimental session, which included a brief (15 min) period of exposure during which participants either stopped or maintained within-situation safety-seeking behaviours. When the behaviour test was repeated within two days, patients who had stopped their safety-seeking behaviours during the experimental session showed a significantly greater decrease in catastrophic beliefs and anxiety than those who had maintained safety-seeking behaviour. This difference was also reflected in questionnaires measuring clinical anxiety. These results are consistent with the cognitive hypothesis.
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“Our findings are consistent with this body of research, indicating that elements of treatment can be used as 'safety seeking behaviours' that reduce efficacy of exposure and maintain the disorder by preventing disconfirmatory experiences concerning fears of bodily sensations [42].”
From Helpful and hindering factors for remission in dysthymia and panic disorder at 9-year follow-up: A mixed methods study (2008) · cites this paper as [42]
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“, passing out) has been cited as a likely route to maintenance of maladaptive cognitive processes (Salkovskis et al., 1999; Thwaites & Freeston, 2005).”
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“…this construct and greater propensity for more intense anxiety symptoms (Serpell et al., 2009), as well as theoretical models that suggest perseverative behavior may characterize, in part, risk and maintenance vulnerability for panic psychopathology (Salkovskis, 1996; Salkovskis et al., 1999).”
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“…number of studies have demonstrated that change in threat perception is enhanced by reducing SBs during exposure to feared situations (e.g., Beesdo-Baum et al., 2012; Kamphuis & Telch, 2000; Kim, 2005; Plasencia et al, 2011; Salkovskis et al., 1999; Taylor & Alden, 2010; Wells et al., 1995).”
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“…while there were only a few marginal associations with depressive core symptoms, supporting the role of fear, attention, and behavior toward bodily sensations in anxiety symptomatology, as highlighted in etiological models of anxiety pathologies (Hamm et al., 2014; Salkovskis et al., 1999).”
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“…to allow new learning has since become a central mechanism in cognitive treatments for panic disorder and agoraphobia (Clark and Salkovskis, 2009), post-traumatic stress disorder (Ehlers and Clark, 2000), obsessive compulsive disorder (Salkovskis, 1999) and social anxiety (Clark and Wells, 1995).”
Rowland, H. (2026) · Transactional Analysis Journal · doi:10.1080/03621537.2026.2677312 · Cited by 2
“…section. salkovskis is a highly respected cognitive psychology researcher with an extensive publication record supporting cBt (salkovskis, 1996, 2002; salkovskis et al., 1999). in a theory paper, salkovskis and his colleagues (salkovskis et al., 2024) advocated for a commitment to a common factors…”
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The safety behaviors in anxiety and their effects
Tao, L. I., 焦虑相关的认知偏差存在联系, 、., Hui, S. O. N. G., Ran, G. A. O., & Fei, F. E. N. G. (2022) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2022.02067 · Cited by 2
“00 01 3v 1 的安全感。二是，尽管它被称为是“行为”，但它可能是外显的，也可能是内隐的，很多 情况下它是内部的心理过程。例如，社交焦虑者担心即将开始的演讲会出现冷场，会在自 己心里默念预先想好的句子。三是，安全行为的表现具有一定的症状特异性，它特定于个 人的核心关切和恐惧而言，不同焦虑障碍患者因为所恐惧的内容不同，他们所做出的安全 行为有一定的差异。例如社交焦虑者在社交情境中可能会表现为回避眼神接触、监控自己 的讲话；惊恐障碍者则表现为携带药物或回避诱发唤起的刺激。也正是由于这种特异性的 特征，为安全行为的界定及其效果研究带来了一定的困难。 安全行为容易与几个相近的概念相混淆，在论及安全行为与焦虑症状的关系之前，有 必要对…”
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“…when considering that various avoidance (e.g., avoiding feared situations) and safety behaviors (e.g., checking and reassurance seeking) are central to the conceptualization of many anxiety and related disorders (Barlow, 2002; McManus et al., 2008; Salkovskis et al., 1999; Scarella et al., 2019).”
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“In line with Salkovskis’ perspective (Salkovskis et al., 1999), Clark and Wells (1995) view safety behaviours as maladaptive actions that impede 33 cognitive change.”
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Self-citationA Family „Affear‟: Three Generations of Agoraphobics
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First Wave Conceptualizations of Anxiety Disorders
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“These findings align with evidence for the relevance of safety-seeking behaviours to adult PD (Salkovskis et al ., 1996; Salkovskis et al ., 1999).”
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“For example, a study by Salkovskis et al. [35] indicates that the use of safety behaviours is associated with a smaller reduction in catastrophic beliefs as well as in anxiety.”
Seki, Y., Takemura, R., Sutoh, C., Noguchi, R., Okamoto, Y., Ohira, I., Nagata, S., & Shimizu, E. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07320-2
“…and is based on Clark’s PD model, including themes such as conducting role play-based experiments with and without safety behaviors, reconstruction of catastrophic images from panic attacks into realistic and safe images, and behavioral experiments to test the patient’s negative beliefs [37–39].”
Aslam, S. Y., Jenkin, A. C., Zortea, T. C., Wykes, C., Sadler, S., & Salkovskis, P. M. (2025) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291725102353
“…showing that identifying cata-strophic misinterpretations of bodily sensations and safety-seeking behaviors and targeting them within treatment using belief discon-firmation results in greater improvements in panic when compared to exposure-based habituation (Salkovskis et al., 1999, 2007).”
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Salkovskis, P. M., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., Wells, A., & Gelder, M. G.
- Affiliations
- Warneford Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Salkovskis, Paul M.
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-06
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 559-574
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2064286008
- Cited by
- 310
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 7.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Health and Mental Health
- Keywords
- safety-seeking behavior, panic disorder with agoraphobia, anxiety maintenance, exposure therapy, anxiety reduction
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Agoraphobia, Anxiety, Attitude, Avoidance Learning, Desensitization, Psychologic, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Panic, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Panic Disorder
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