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Responding to global stimulant use: challenges and opportunities
Open accessAbstract
We did a global review to synthesise data on the prevalence, harms, and interventions for stimulant use, focusing specifically on the use of cocaine and amphetamines. Modelling estimated the effect of cocaine and amphetamine use on mortality, suicidality, and blood borne virus incidence. The estimated global prevalence of cocaine use was 0·4% and amphetamine use was 0·7%, with dependence affecting 16% of people who used cocaine and 11% of those who used amphetamine. Stimulant use was associated with elevated mortality, increased incidence of HIV and hepatitis C infection, poor mental health (suicidality, psychosis, depression, and violence), and increased risk of cardiovascular events. No effective pharmacotherapies are available that reduce stimulant use, and the available psychosocial interventions (except for contingency management) had a weak overall effect. Generic approaches can address mental health and blood borne virus infection risk if better tailored to mitigate the harms associated with stimulant use. Substantial and sustained investment is needed to develop more effective interventions to reduce stimulant use.
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BackgroundInfluentialA multivariate regressor of patterned dopamine release predicts relapse to cocaine
Luján, M. Á., Oliver, B. L., Young-Morrison, R., Engi, S. A., Zhang, L.-Y., Wenzel, J. M., Li, Y., Zlebnik, N. E., & Cheer, J. F. (2023) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112553 · Cited by 16
Lindqvist, K., Thorin, Z., & Kåberg, M. (2023) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-023-00801-1 · Cited by 16
“In Swedish NSP, over 60% of PWID predominantly use amphetamines, adding to the challenge of eliminating HCV as amphetamine use disorder, compared to OAT for opioid use disorder, lack effective pharmacotherapy treatment that retain patients in care [60, 61].”
BackgroundDaldegan‐Bueno, D., & Fischer, B. (2023) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2023.101891 · Cited by 15
Risk of psychosis in illicit amphetamine users: a 10 year retrospective cohort study
Huang, C., Tsai, I., & Lee, C. W. (2022) · Evidence-Based Mental Health · doi:10.1136/ebmental-2021-300300 · Cited by 14
Methamphetamine dependence in Australia–why is ‘ice’ (crystal meth) so addictive?
Scott, R. J. (2023) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2023.2206870 · Cited by 15
“The current estimated global prevalence of amphetamine and methamphetamine use is 0.7%, with dependence affecting 11% of those users (Farrell et al., 2019).”
InfluentialJones, K. F., Khodyakov, D., Han, B. H., Arnold, R. M., Dao, E., Morrison, J., Kapo, J. M., Meier, D. E., Paice, J. A., Liebschutz, J. M., et al. (2023) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.34921 · Cited by 14
“16 National estimates indicate combined nonmedical stimulants and opioid overdose deaths are increasing sharply.”
BackgroundEzard, N., Clifford, B., Siefried, K. J., Ali, R. L., Dunlop, A. J., McKetin, R., Bruno, R., Carr, A., Ward, J. S., Farrell, M., et al. (2024) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.16730 · Cited by 16
“Methamphetamine use is associated with physical, psychological and social harms, as well as increased mortality [2].”
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Safer smoking kits for methamphetamine consumption
Imtiaz, S., Strıke, C., Elton‐Marshall, T., & Rehm, J. T. (2019) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14914 · Cited by 13
Self-citationCognitive improvement among abstinent methamphetamine users: A 2‐year prospective longitudinal study
Wang, T., Fan, T., Lappin, J., Li, X., Zhao, Y., Wu, P., Shi, J., Bao, Y., & Lü, L. (2021) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.13209 · Cited by 12
A mechanistic overview of approaches for the treatment of psychostimulant dependence
Jensen, K. L., Jensen, S. B., & Madsen, K. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.854176 · Cited by 12
“2 million people used amphetamines (Farrell et al., 2019).”
The Common Denominators of Parkinson’s Disease Pathogenesis and Methamphetamine Abuse
Vincent, B., & Shukla, M. (2023) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x21666230907151226 · Cited by 13
“Most importantly, conditions like suicidality, psychosis, depression, and violence contribute to the poor mental health associated with stimulant use, and continuous abuse of such drugs enhances the incidence of HIV and hepatitis C infection, thus upraising the mortality rate [13].”
BackgroundRocha‐Gomes, A., Teixeira, A. E., Lima, D. S. S., Rocha, L. D. S., da Silva, A. A., Lessa, M. R., Pinto, N. A. V. D., Stuckert-Seixas, S. R., & Riul, T. R. (2021) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113430 · Cited by 15
Disulfiram for the treatment of cocaine dependence
Traccis, F., Minozzi, S., Trogu, E., Vacca, R., Vecchi, S., Pani, P. P., & Agabio, R. (2024) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007024.pub3 · Cited by 14
Patterns of drug use among people who inject drugs: A global systematic review and meta-analysis
Webb, P., Ireland, J., Colledge‐Frisby, S., Peacock, A., Leung, J., Vickerman, P. T., Farrell, M., Hickman, M., Grebely, J., & Degenhardt, L. J. (2024) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104455 · Cited by 11
Self-citationMethamphetamine use and psychotic symptoms: findings from a New Zealand longitudinal birth cohort
Boden, J. M., Foulds, J., Newton‐Howes, G., & McKetin, R. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721002415 · Cited by 11
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“…s d A s o i d T tand pleasure as an experience shaped by personal, social, and strucural factors that can be remade and reimagined in different times. oucault (2011) distinguished the more generic concept of pleasure rom that of ‘desire’, which he saw as more weighed down by the interretations of…”
BackgroundPavarin, R. M., Sanchini, S., Tadonio, L., Domenicali, M., Caputo, F., & Pacetti, M. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113639 · Cited by 11
Fischer, B., Hall, W., Jutras‐Aswad, D., & Foll, B. L. (2025) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437251338553 · Cited by 11
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Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among untreated illicit substance users: a population-based study
Shiraly, R., Jazayeri, S. A., Seifaei, A., Jeihooni, A. K., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-024-01015-9 · Cited by 10
“This finding is in line with previous research indicating serious consequences of use of amphetamine-type substances (ATSs) on mental health [34–36].”
ResultBech, A. B., Clausen, T., Waal, H., Delaveris, G. J. M., & Skeie, I. (2021) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15705 · Cited by 10
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Different phases of ATS use call for different interventions: a large qualitative study in Europe
Liebregts, N., Rigoni, R. D. Q., Petruželka, B., Barták, M., Rowicka, M., Zurhold, H., & Schiffer, K. (2022) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-022-00617-5 · Cited by 10
“Most interventions directed to prevent, treat or reduce the harms of illegal drug use currently focus on (injected) opioids [30, 31].”
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Siefried, K. J., Ezard, N., Christmass, M. A., Haber, P., & Ali, R. L. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.13350 · Cited by 10
“Methamphetamines and other emerging drugs of concern are global issues with public health implications affecting individuals, families, workplaces and communities [1].”
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Navigating Evidence, Challenges, and Caution in the Treatment of Stimulant Use Disorders
Bahji, A., Danilewitz, M., & Crockford, D. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13101416 · Cited by 9
“Stimulants also have known detrimental cardiovascular effects, including hypertension, electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities, myocardial infarction, and stroke [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialA systematic review of the effect of ovarian sex hormones on stimulant use in females
Arunogiri, S., Crossin, R., Rizzo, D., Walker, L. C., Ridley, K., & Gurvich, C. (2021) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13079 · Cited by 9
Fang, S., Hung, C., Huang, C.-Y., Huang, S., & Shao, Y. J. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01025-x · Cited by 10
“Lee et al., 2021), cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (Huang et al., 2016a), and human immunodeficiency virus (Farrell et al., 2019).”
Høj, S. B., Minoyan, N., Zang, G., Larney, S., & Bruneau, J. (2023) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110956 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Farrell, M., Martin, N. K., Stockings, E., Bórquez, A., Cepeda, J. A., Degenhardt, L., Ali, R., Tran, L. T., Rehm, J., Torrens, M., Shoptaw, S., & McKetin, R.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CA)
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Farrell, Michael
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-11
- Volume
- 394
- Issue
- 10209
- Pages
- 1652-1667
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- PMC
- PMC6924572
- OpenAlex
- W2981405421
- Cited by
- 310
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 4.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI147490)
- National Institute for Drug Abuse (R01 DA03773)
- NIH (P30 AI036214)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › HIV, Drug Use, Sexual Risk
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Youth, Drugs, and Violence
- Keywords
- stimulant use, cocaine, amphetamine, prevalence, substance dependence, mortality, suicidality, HIV, hepatitis C, blood-borne viruses, cardiovascular risk, psychosis, depression, violence, pharmacotherapy, psychosocial interventions, contingency management, harm reduction
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Amphetamines, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Mental Disorders, Cardiovascular Diseases, Cocaine, Female, Hepatitis C, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Virus Diseases, HIV Infections, Incidence, Prevalence, Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors, Cocaine-Related Disorders, Young Adult
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