Cited by 410Alzheimer's disease research and treatmentsDementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

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Diagnostic Criteria for Neuropathologic Assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease

Braak, H, Braak, E·1997·Neurobiology of Aging

DOI 10.1016/s0197-4580(97)00062-6

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Abstract

Prior to any evaluation of morphologic brain changes, a decision must be made whether a given alteration is associated with aging or with disease. Patients with disease-related lesions may be in a clinically silent phase of a disease or show overt symptoms. Neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads are the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. They should not be considered to be age-related changes, even when they are present only in small numbers. In general, the initial changes consist of neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads. Plaques (amyloid deposits and/or neuritic plaques) are consistently present in the end stage of the disease. Initial neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads develop at specific cortical predilection sites. The changes then spread in a predictable, nonrandom manner across other portions of the telencephalic cortex. The sequential changes in the distribution pattern of the lesions provide the basis for a staging procedure that takes the slow and gradual progression of the destructive process into consideration. The staging procedure provides accurate diagnoses in the initial stages and even reveals brain changes developing prior to the appearance of clinical symptoms. It is thus advantageous in characterizing nondemented controls. The staging procedure can be carried out easily and does not require knowledge of clinical data, quantitative assessments, or adjustments for the age of the patients. Application of advanced silver techniques (Gallyas, Campbell-Switzer) to demonstrate Alzheimer's disease-related lesions also allows recognition of the hallmarks of other disorders, such as Lewy body disease (Parkinson's disease) and dementia with argyrophilic grains, which frequently co-occur with Alzheimer's disease.

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Shineman, D. W., & Fillit, H. M. (2009) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2009.11.2/dwshineman · Cited by 15
An experimental approach to detecting dementia in Down syndrome: A paradigm for Alzheimer’s disease
Nelson, L. D., Scheibel, K. E., Ringman, J. M., & Sayre, J. W. (2007) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2007.01.003 · Cited by 17
Properties of odor identification testing in screening for early-stage Alzheimer’s disease
Audronytė, E., Pakulaite-Kazliene, G., Sutnikiene, V., & Kaubrys, G. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-32878-w · Cited by 14
Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer’s Disease Continuum
Pablo, V. G.-D., Gómez, C., Poza, J., Maturana-Candelas, A., Martins, S., Gomes, I., Lopes, A. M., Pinto, N., & Hornero, R. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20143849 · Cited by 16
“It is known that MTL structures are the earliest brain regions of AD-associated pathology [50].”
Background
Probiotic supplement as a promising strategy in early tau pathology prevention: Focusing on GSK-3β?
Flynn, C. M., & Yuan, Q. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1159314 · Cited by 15
“Cross-sectional studies of AD brains demonstrated a correlation of tangle accumulation with neuronal loss and dementia (Braak and Braak, 1997; Congdon and Duff, 2008).”
Background
Recent Increases in Hippocampal Tau Pathology in the Aging Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study
Hamasaki, H., Honda, H., Okamoto, T., Koyama, S., Suzuki, S. O., Ohara, T., Ninomiya, T., Kiyohara, Y., & Iwaki, T. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-160521 · Cited by 15
“disease (CERAD) guidelines [11] and Braak and Braak stage [12, 13].”
Pick’s Tau Fibril Shows Multiple Distinct PET Probe Binding Sites: Insights from Computational Modelling
Mishra, S. K., Yamaguchi, Y., Higuchi, M., & Sahara, N. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22010349 · Cited by 14
Soluble amyloid-beta isoforms predict downstream Alzheimer’s disease pathology
Povala, G., Bellaver, B., Bastiani, M. A. D., Brum, W. S., Ferreira, P. C. L., Bieger, A., Pascoal, T. A., Benedet, A. L., Souza, D. O., Araújo, R., et al. (2021) · Cell & Bioscience · doi:10.1186/s13578-021-00712-3 · Cited by 14
Neuroprotection of Cholinergic Neurons with a Tau Aggregation Inhibitor and Rivastigmine in an Alzheimer’s-like Tauopathy Mouse Model
Zadrożny, M., Drapich, P., Gąsiorowska, A., Niewiadomski, W., Harrington, C. R., Wischik, C. M., Riedel, G., & Niewiadomska, G. (2024) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells13070642 · Cited by 13
“In the Braak staging model [7,18], cholinergic projection areas (isocortex, hippocampus) are particularly vulnerable to tau aggregation and spreading [19–21].”
Method
Reduced Purkinje Cell Number in Essential Tremor
Axelrad, J. E., Louis, E. D., Honig, L. S., Flores, I., Ross, G. W., Pahwa, R., Lyons, K. E., Faust, P. L., & Vonsattel, J. P. (2008) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneurol.2007.8 · Cited by 13
Expression Levels of an Alpha-Synuclein Transcript in Blood May Distinguish between Early Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease
Marsal-García, L., Urbizu, A., Arnaldo, L., Campdelacreu, J., Vilas, D., Ispierto, L., Gascón‐Bayarri, J., Reñé, R., Álvarez, R., & Beyer, K. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22020725 · Cited by 14
Alzheimer's disease behaviors from past self-identities: An exploration of the memory and cognitive features
Harrison, B. E., Therrien, B. A., & Giordani, B. (2005) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/153331750502000405 · Cited by 14
Cerebellar pathology in childhood-onset vs. adult-onset essential tremor
Louis, E. D., Kuo, S., Tate, W. J., Kelly, G. C., & Faust, P. L. (2017) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.072 · Cited by 13
Traumatic Brain Injury and Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: Not Only Trigger for Neurodegeneration but Also for Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy?
Zedde, M., Piazza, F., & Pascarella, R. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13040881 · Cited by 12
“Interestingly, four out of six plaque-positive cases involved patients over 50, an age group already prone to amyloid deposition [52,53].”
Molecular aspects of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease.
Russo, C., Venezia, V., Salis, S., Dolcini, V., & Schettini, G. (2002) · PubMed · Cited by 12
Apolipoprotein E ɛ4–related effects on cognition are limited to the Alzheimer’s disease spectrum
Fernández, A., Vaquero, L., Bajo, R., Zuluaga, P., Initiative, A. D. N., Weiner, M. W., Saykin, A. J., Trojanowski, J. Q., Shaw, L. M. J., Toga, A. W., et al. (2021) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-021-00450-x · Cited by 10
Gene Expression Analysis of Laser-Captured Purkinje Cells in the Essential Tremor Cerebellum
Martuscello, R. T., Sivaprakasam, K., Hartstone, W. G., Kuo, S., Konopka, G., Louis, E. D., & Faust, P. L. (2022) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-022-01483-4 · Cited by 11
“Brains had Braak and Braak Alzheimer’s disease staging for neurofibrillary tangles [40, 41] as well as Consortium to Estab-lish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) ratings for neuritic plaques [42].”
Method
The workflow from post-mortem human brain sampling to cell microdissection: a Brain Net Europe study
Meyronet, D., Dorey, A., Massoma, P., Rey, C., Alix, E., Silva, K., Perrin, C., Quadrio, I., Perret‐Liaudet, A., Streichenberger, N., et al. (2015) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-015-1378-4 · Cited by 11
Does Alzheimer's Disease Result from Attempts at Repair or Protection After Transient Stress?
Bissette, G. (2009) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2009-1171 · Cited by 11
“supported by the Braak staging scale [7], which uses the amounts of NFT to determine the severity of individual cases and is a better correlate with degree of dementia than Aβ senile plaque counts [8].”
Eyeblink Classical Conditioning to Auditory and Olfactory Stimuli: Performance Among Older Adults With and Without the Apolipoprotein E ε4 Allele.
MOORE, A. B., Bondi, M. W., Salmon, D. P., & Murphy, C. (2005) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.4.437 · Cited by 11
Bilateral symmetry aspects in computer-aided Alzheimer's disease diagnosis by single-photon emission-computed tomography imaging
Illán, I. A., Górriz, J. M., Ramı́rez, J., Lang, E. W., Salas-Gonzalez, D., & Puntonet, C. G. (2012) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2012.09.005 · Cited by 10
Mechanisms of Microglial Activation by Amyloid Precursor Protein and its Proteolytic Fragments
Austin, S. A., & Combs, C. K. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73894-9_2 · Cited by 10
[18F]-florbetaben PET/CT Imaging in the Alzheimer’s Disease Mouse Model APPswe/PS1dE9
Stenzel, J., Rühlmann, C., Lindner, T., Polei, S., Teipel, S. J., Kurth, J., Rominger, A., Krause, B. J., Vollmar, B., & Kuhla, A. (2018) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205015666181022095904 · Cited by 11
Thiophene-Based Ligands for Specific Assignment of Distinct Aβ Pathologies in Alzheimer's Disease
Klingstedt, T., Lantz, L., Shirani, H., Ge, J., Hanrieder, J., Vidal, R., Ghetti, B. F., & Nilsson, K. P. R. (2024) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.4c00021 · Cited by 11
Assessing cerebrovascular contribution to late dementia of the Alzheimer's type: The role of combined hemodynamic and structural MR analysis
Henry-Feugeas, M. C. (2009) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2009.02.325 · Cited by 10
Attenuation of Aβ‐Induced Apoptosis of Plant Extract (Saengshik) Mediated by the Inhibition of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Antioxidative Effect
Chen, C.-Y., Jang, J.-H., Park, M. H., Hwang, S., Surh, Y., & Park, O. J. (2007) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1397.043 · Cited by 10
Alzheimer's disease: from molecular pathways to therapies
Feng, J.-Q., Yang, L.-L., Ya-xi, L., & Yao, X. (2026) · Molecular Biomedicine · doi:10.1186/s43556-026-00443-2 · Cited by 10
“This process allows tau pathology to spread in an infection-like manner along neuronal connectivity pathways, following a predictable and ste-reotyped pattern (Braak stages I–VI), beginning in the entorhinal cortex, progressing to the hippocampus, and eventually affecting the entire neocortex [59].”
Structure-activity relationship around PI-2620 highlights the importance of the nitrogen atom position in the tricyclic core.
Kroth, H., Oden, F., Serra, A., Molette, J., Mueller, A., Berndt, M., Capotosti, F., Gabellieri, E., Schmitt-Willich, H., Hickman, D., et al. (2021) · Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116528 · Cited by 7
Immunohistoblot analysis on whole human hemispheres from normal and Alzheimer diseased brains
Beliczai, Z., Várszegi, S., Gulyás, B. Z., Halldin, C., Kása, P., & Gulya, K. (2008) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2008.09.002 · Cited by 9
Presenilin-1 C410Y Alzheimer Disease Plaques Contain Synaptic Proteins
Haleem, K., Lippa, C. F., Smith, T. W., Kowa, H., Wu, J., & Iwatsubo, T. (2007) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317506298051 · Cited by 9
“Non-plaque associated pathology, eg, tau-positive tangles and neuropil threads, were abundant in all six C410Y cases (Braak Stage VI).(26) The most striking finding was increased synaptic protein immunoreactivity in CWPs (Figure 1D and 1E).”
Background
Reduced PIN1 expression in neocortical and limbic brain regions in female Alzheimer’s patients correlates with cognitive and neuropathological phenotypes
de Ávila, C., Suazo, C., Nolz, J., Cochran, J. N., Wang, Q., Velázquez, R., Dammer, E. B., Readhead, B., & Mastroeni, D. (2024) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2024.06.007 · Cited by 9
“…cognitive assessment (Riley et al., 2005; Snowdon et al., 1996), recent peripheral evidence (Palmqvist et al., 2020), and neuropathological data (Braak and Braak, 1997; Pletnikova et al., 2015) have established that Alz-heimer ’ s disease affects the brain for decades before clinical diagnosis…”
Perspectives on pain in Down syndrome
Shaikh, A., Li, Y., & Lu, J. (2023) · Medicinal Research Reviews · doi:10.1002/med.21954 · Cited by 10
INDEL Length and Haplotypes in the β-Synuclein Gene: A Key to Differentiate Dementia with Lewy Bodies?1
Gámez‐Valero, A., Canet-Pons, J., Urbizu, A., Anillo, A., dos Santos, C. M. P., Ariza, A., & Beyer, K. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180074 · Cited by 8
Associative memory and in vivo brain pathology in asymptomatic presenilin-1 E280A carriers
Guzmán‐Vélez, E., Martinez, J. E., Papp, K. V., Baena, A. Y., Vila‐Castelar, C., Artola, A., Schultz, A. P., Bocanegra, Y., Sanchez, J. S., Rentz, D. M., et al. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010177 · Cited by 8
“In terms of AD-related pathology in cognitively unimpaired mutation carriers, worse performance on dFR predicted greater cortical amyloid and tau burden in the entorhinal cortex, one of the initial sites of tau neurofibrillary tangles formation.(2,25,26) Similarly, worse immediate FR and dFR scores significantly predi…”
Background
Nanotechnology, Nanostructure, and Nervous System Disorders
Woolf, N., Priel, A., & Tuszynski, J. (2009) · Biological and medical physics series · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03584-5_5 · Cited by 6

Authors: Braak, H., & Braak, E.
Affiliations: Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
Corresponding author: Braak, H
ORCID: Braak, H
Venue: Neurobiology of Aging
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1997-07
Volume: 18
Issue: 4
Pages: S85-S88
ISSN: 0197-4580 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(97)00062-6
OpenAlex: W2015001118
Cited by: 410
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 1.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Neurobiology of Aging (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords: Alzheimer's disease, neuropathologic diagnosis, neurofibrillary tangles, neuropil threads, amyloid plaques, silver staining, Lewy body disease, brain aging
MeSH terms: Aged, Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Brain, Humans, Severity of Illness Index, Neurofibrillary Tangles, Disease Progression, Neuropil Threads, Plaque, Amyloid

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Diagnostic Criteria for Neuropathologic Assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease

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