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The network and the remodeling theories of aging: historical background and new perspectives
Abstract
Two general theories, i.e. "the network theory of aging" (1989) and "the remodeling theory of aging" (1995), as well as their implications, new developments, and perspectives are reviewed and discussed. Particular attention has been paid to illustrate: (i) how the network theory of aging fits with recent data on aging and longevity in unicellular organisms (yeast), multicellular organisms (worms), and mammals (mice and humans); (ii) the evolutionary and experimental basis of the remodeling theory of aging (immunological, genetic, and metabolic data in healthy centenarians, and studies on the evolution of the immune response, stress and inflammation) and its recent development (the concepts of "immunological space" and "inflamm-aging"); (iii) the profound relationship between these two theories and the data which suggest that aging and longevity are related, in a complex way, to the capability to cope with a variety of stressors.
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“As in children and adolescents, TIS is also believed to be a major driving force of frailty and other AEs in adults owing to its detrimental effect on tissue function via chronic inflammation, similar to 'inflammaging' , which is a chronic mild inflammatory process that develops with age 198,200,201 .”
From Senescence and cancer — role and therapeutic opportunities (2022) · cites this paper as [201]
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The p66shc adaptor protein controls oxidative stress response and life span in mammals
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Rizzo, L. (2020) · Arrow - TU Dublin (Technological University Dublin) · doi:10.21427/g02a-wg20 · Cited by 4
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“Therefore, long livers can serve as a natural model for studying the biological aspects of successful human aging [33].”
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Pleiotropic effects of UCP2–UCP3 variability on leucocyte telomere length and glucose homeostasis
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Farazi, M., Cohn, Z., Nguyen, J. V., Weinberg, A. D., & Ruby, C. E. (2014) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1189/jlb.1a0114-066r · Cited by 6
“Chronic infection can contribute to immune senescence, memory inflation, and “inflamm-aging”—immunologic features documented in elderly subjects [38, 39].”
BackgroundSenescence and Senescence-Related Disorders
Wang, Z. P., & Inuzuka, H. (2013) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/56158 · Cited by 12
Human B Cell Senescence in Pulmonary Infections
Blomberg, B. B. (2012) · Open Longevity Science · doi:10.2174/1876326x01206010047 · Cited by 3
“None declared.”
A Trait of Longevity: The Microbiota of Centenarians
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Aging of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells
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Biological causes of aging and age-related diseases
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Balajam, N. Z., Dehghanbanadaki, H., Heshmat, R., Mardani-Fard, H. A., Kasaeian, A., Majidi, Z., Bandarian, F., Fahimfar, N., Farzadfar, F., Ostovar, A., et al. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07058-w · Cited by 2
“This age-related chronic inflammation, termed “inflammaging”, is associated with elevated levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1(IL-1), and interferon-ɣ (IF-ɣ ), which activate multiple metabolic pathways, including the kynurenine and nicotinamide pathways [5, 16].”
Analysis of the levels of inflammatory parameters in persons over the age of 90
Zabielska, P., Wieder-Huszla, S., Karakiewicz, B., Skonieczna‐Żydecka, K., Lubkowska, A., & Jurczak, A. (2021) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2021.111278 · Cited by 4
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Discovery of Characteristics of Patients with Increased Level of Inflammation
Majnarić, L. T., & Yıldırım, P. (2015) · Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.4172/2161-0444.1000310 · Cited by 5
“According to these studies, aging is considered as the complex remodeling process, that means that there is not a simple linear decline in the physiological functions over time, but instead, compensatory reactions follow detrimental changes, while the loss of some functions is maintained together with the over activat…”
BackgroundInfluentialBabizhayev, M. A., Vishnyakova, K. S., & Yegorov, Y. E. (2014) · Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1515/jbcpp-2014-0045 · Cited by 5
Fibrich, B. D., & Lall, N. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812475-8.00003-2 · Cited by 11
Psychomotor Aging in Lebanon: Reliability and Validity of the Geriatric Psychomotor Examination
Faddoul, S. G., Abizeid, C. M., & Albaret, J. (2017) · doi:10.4172/2161-0460.1000372 · Cited by 3
“Through aging, several processes simultaneously operate at different levels of functional organization, resulting in age-related physiological and psychomotor changes [1-3].”
Bellavista, E., & Franceschi, C. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008045046-9.00116-9 · Cited by 2
Self-citationRobaire, B. (2002) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0679-9_16 · Cited by 3
Effects of different hypoxia exposure on myeloid-derived suppressor cells in mice
Xu, Q., Liu, H., Ye, Y., Wuren, T., & Ge, R. (2024) · Experimental and Molecular Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.yexmp.2024.104932 · Cited by 2
Review on druggable targets of key age‐associated properties regulated by therapeutic agents
Unni, A. P., Sajitha Lulu, S., & Pillai, G. G. (2020) · Chemical Biology & Drug Design · doi:10.1111/cbdd.13759 · Cited by 4
“Network theory emphasizes the significance of cellular and molecular defence mechanism in regulating aging and associated diseases while remodelling theory explained the concept of immunosenescence (Franceschi et al., 2000).”
BackgroundPrebiotics and Probiotics in Aging Population
Magrone, T., & Jirillo, E. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801816-3.00049-2 · Cited by 3
Inflammaging and Its Role in Ageing and Age-Related Diseases
Franceschi, C., Franceschi, Z. A., Garagnani, P., & Giuliani, C. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29716-3_18 · Cited by 1
“Healthy old subjects and centenarians could be considered as those individuals with the best ability to adapt to damaging agents and immunological and non-immunological stressors [15] by setting up a variety of anti-inflammatory responses capable of neutralizing, at least in part the detrimental effects of inflammagin…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPopulation Immunology: Germs, Aging and Inflammation
Faria, A. M. C., & Franceschi, C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8712-3_8 · Cited by 3
Self-citationStevenson, A. J., McCartney, D. L., Harris, S. E., Taylor, A. M., Redmond, P. H., Starr, J. M., Zhang, Q., McRae, A. F., Wray, N. R., Spires‐Jones, T. L., et al. (2018) · Clinical Epigenetics · doi:10.1186/s13148-018-0585-x · Cited by 58
“Our results fit with the remodelling theory of ageing which postulates that immunosenescence or ‘immuno-remodelling’ is a dynamic process involving both loss and gains of immune function [21, 24].”
ResultKim, J. Y., Jo, Y., Park, S. J., Baek, J. Y., Jang, G., Lee, E.-J., Sakong, H., Kim, S. J., Kim, S.-J., Ryu, D., et al. (2025) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2025.2586 · Cited by 1
“A growing body of evidence highlights the critical role of chronic low-grade inflammation—commonly referred to as ‘in-flammaging’—in the pathogenesis of age-related functional decline, including sarcopenia [24].”
Giuliani, C., Garagnani, P., & Franceschi, C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_731-1 · Cited by 4
Self-citationOn the Way to Longevity: How to Combat Neuro-Degenerative Disease
d’Alessio, P., Ostan, R., Capri, M., & Franceschi, C. (2013) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/54914 · Cited by 4
“This phenomenon is characterized by a general increase in plasmatic levels and cell capability to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines (Interleukin-6, IL-6, Interleukin-1, IL-1 and Tumour Necrosis Factor-α, TNF-α) and by a subsequent increase of the main inflamma‐ tory markers, such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum…”
BackgroundSelf-citationMemory and Selectivity in Evolving Scale-Free Immune Networks
Tieri, P., Valensin, S., Franceschi, C., Morandi, C., & Castellani, G. (2003) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45192-1_9 · Cited by 9
Self-citationA Portrait of the Older Entrepreneur: Factors Toward Transformation and Persistence
Kerr, G. (2019) · Handbook of Research on Elderly Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13334-4_12 · Cited by 1
Benefical Effects of Mediterranean Diet in Neuroinflammation and Related Diseases
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“This state seems be the result of continuous antigenic stimulation that continues beyond the reproductive age and therefore widely not expected by the evolution [52,65,66].”
BackgroundStem Cell Aging: Mechanisms, Consequences, Rejuvenation
Geiger, H., Jasper, H., & Florian, M. C. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1232-8 · Cited by 5
Inflammatory bowel disease in the geriatric population
Murad, Y. (2011) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Elite · doi:10.2741/e300 · Cited by 5
“immunity leads to the pro-inflammatory phenotype with activated innate immunity responses (29) termed this agerelated immune status ‘‘inflamm-aging’’ (30).”
BackgroundImmunity, Inflammation and infections during aging
Capri, M., Salvioli, S., Sevini, F., Cevenini, E., Pierini, M., Celani, L., Bucci, L., Ostan, R., Scurti, M., Mazzà, D., et al. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-5058-5_2
Self-citationGenetic impact of aging on periodontal disease: A scoping review
Das, N. (2023) · World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews · doi:10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.1.0185
“This "inflamm-aging" state may be generated through continuous antigenic load and pressure changes affecting the immune system [4].”
Ferri, E., Proietti, M., Cesari, M., & Arosio, B. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119484288.ch119
Witkowski, J. M., & Fülöp, T. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64597-1_13-1
Respiratory Infection, Airway Colonization and Chronic Inflammation in Aging
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Sinha, S. D., Maiti, P. K., & Tarafdar, S. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1511.06969
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Parental longevity impacts on the health status of the offspring
Bucci, L. C. (2011) · doi:10.6092/unibo/amsdottorato/3441
“…"immunological space" (Franceschi et al., 2000a) leading to a progressive development of a chronic inflammatory status, known as "inflammaging", (Franceschi et al., 2000b) 2005; Ginaldi et al., 2005; De Martinis et al., 2006; Rudin and Barzilai, 2005) 1.3.2.4 Phenotype of peripheral T cells The…”
BackgroundInfluentialDesigning models for the dynamics of T-cell clones
Luciani, F. (2006) · doi:10.18452/15486
“This leads to a lifelong accumulation of memory cells that appear to be well preserved in ageing [Nikolich-Zugich, 2005, Fagnoni et al., 2000, Franceschi et al., 2000a], which could impare naive homeostasis.”
BackgroundMitochondria, Aging, and Disease
Salvioli, S., Bonafè, M., Barbi, C., Capri, M., Monti, D., & Franceschi, C. (2003) · Oxidative stress and disease · doi:10.1201/9780203912874.ch7
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Anti-Aging Medicine LiteratureWatch
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Aging in Complex Multicellular Organisms
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Use of MSCs in Antiaging Strategies
Block, T. J., Dean, D. D., & Chen, X. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811920-4.00018-5
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Mortality risk factors in community dwelling elderly - Knowledge base
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Aging Process Immunity and Its Relation with Periodontal Disease in Genetic Aspect
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“through continuous antigenic load and pressure changes affecting the immune system [4].”
BackgroundIncreasing the Evidential Value of Biological evidence
Hampson, C. (2016) · Liverpool John Moores University · doi:10.24377/ljmu.t.00004433
Witkowski, J. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9063-9_13
“In our opinion, this model fits well in the aged immune system remodeling theory [27, 30 ], adding a changing functional component to its—already known—changing phenotypic characteristics.”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Franceschi, C., Valensin, S., Bonafè, M., Paolisso, G., Yashin, A. I., Monti, D., & De Benedictis, G.
- Affiliations
- Istituto Nazionale di Riposo e Cura per Anziani (IT)
- University of Bologna (IT)
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (IT)
- Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (DE)
- University of Florence (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Franceschi, C
- Venue
- Experimental Gerontology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2000-09
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 6-7
- Pages
- 879-896
- ISSN
- 0531-5565 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1984265860
- Cited by
- 335
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 3.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Experimental Gerontology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Florence Research (University of Florence) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Aging › Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model Organisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Telomeres, Telomerase, and Senescence
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- aging, longevity, centenarians, inflammaging, stress response, inflammation, stress tolerance, unicellular organisms, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans, mice, human
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Animals, Biological Evolution, Heat-Shock Proteins, Humans, Immune System, Inflammation, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mice
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