Traditional and Cosmic Gods in Later Plato and the Early Academy

A close reading of Plato's later dialogues shows that the two families of gods, traditional and cosmic, are routinely deployed to organise and structure Plato's accounts of the origins of the universe and of humanity and its social institutions, and to illuminate the moral and political ideals of philosophical utopias.

“A close reading of the later dialogues shows that the two families of gods are routinely deployed to organise and structure Plato's accounts of the origins of the universe and of humanity and its social institutions, as well as to illuminate the moral and political ideals of philosophical utopias.”

For Plato, religion is primarily a service to the gods, composed of sacrifices, prayers, dedications and celebration of festivals.

“For Plato, religion is primarily a service to the gods (θεραπεία τῶν θεῶν, Lg. 4.716d7; cf.11.930e5), the inventory of which is composed of sacrifices, prayers, dedications and celebration of festivals.”

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• cites 11.930e5Not matched

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In the later dialogues, Plato proposed to view the gods as primarily non-anthropomorphic beings remarkable for their intelligence, harmony, uniformity and capacity for self-motion.

“In the later dialogues, he proposed to view the gods as primarily non-anthropomorphic beings remarkable for their intelligence, harmony, uniformity and capacity for self-motion.”

From the institutional point of view, the Delphic sanctuary is repeatedly construed in Plato as the most legitimate body to sanction or give instructions and laws on any religious question.

“From the institutional point of view, the Delphic sanctuary is repeatedly construed as the most legitimate body to sanction or give instructions and laws on any religious question (5.738b-c, 6.759c-d; R. 4.427b-c).”

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• cites 6.759c-dNot matched

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• cites R. 4.427b-cNot matched

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The belief behind Plato's religious practices is that rituals allow one to summon and keep the gods in the company of the worshippers.

“The belief behind these practices is that rituals allow one to summon and keep the gods in the company of the worshippers (7.803e).”

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The service to the gods must be accompanied with the right kind of mindset in order to make outward ritual actions count as proper piety.

“The service to the gods must be accompanied with the right kind of mindset in order to make the outward ritual actions count as proper piety.”

The unification of gods by cosmological characteristics is especially true of the cosmic gods, namely the planets and stars, who are distinguished from one another only by their corporeal and spatial aspects, such as size, orbits, visibility and position.

“It is especially true of the cosmic gods, namely the planets and stars, who are distinguished from one another only by their corporeal and spatial aspects, such as size, orbits, visibility and position”

The recipients of Plato's religious service include not only the Olympians, but also the chthonian gods, the daemons, the heroes, the family divinities, and even the living parents and the dead ancestors.

“Its recipients are not only the Olympians, but also the chthonian gods, the daemons, the heroes and the family divinities, and even the living parents and the dead ancestors (7.717a-e).”

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Plato generally treats the gods as bundles of the right kind of cosmological characteristics, such as order, uniformity and intelligence.

“It is not an exaggeration to say that he generally treats the gods as bundles of the right kind of cosmological characteristics (e.g.order, uniformity, intelligence).”

In the Phaedrus, the divine souls have established names, internal hierarchy and a specific number of leaders that fully correspond to what we know about the Olympian pantheon.

“We learn that the divine souls have established names, internal hierarchy and a specific number of leaders that fully correspond to what we know about the Olympian pantheon.”

In the Phaedrus, the purpose of the gods' movements is to reach the extreme circumference of the universe, the fixed stars at the edge of the sensible world, in an orderly and regular manner and to circle around it by looking beyond the heavens at the transcendent region of Forms.

“Now the purpose of these movements is to reach the extreme circumference of the universe, the fixed stars at the edge of the sensible world, in an orderly and regular manner and to circle around it by looking beyond the heavens (τὸν δὲ ὑπερουράνιον τόπον, 247c3) at the transcendent region of Forms.”

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In the Phaedrus, what unifies the diversity of Olympian character traits is the Form of Beauty and the way this Form draws people to itself through diverse corporeal representations.

“What unifies this diversity is the Form of Beauty and the way in which this Form draws people to itself through its diverse corporeal representations.”

In the Phaedrus, the gods achieve a synoptic vision of the Forms, seeing not only Justice, Self-Control and Beauty but 'all the other beings' too.

“We find a special emphasis placed on the observation of the Forms of Justice, Self-Control and Beauty, but Daniel Werner is right to point out that the gods achieve a synoptic vision of the Forms, because they see 'all the other beings' too (τἆλλα ὡσαύτως τὰ ὄντα, 247e2-3).”

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In the Phaedrus, whichever god and lifestyle are chosen, agents tend to see the beauty of and fall in love with someone following the same god and leading the same lifestyle.

“Whichever god and lifestyle are chosen, the agents tend to see the beauty of and to fall in love with someone following the same god and leading the same lifestyle, that is, the followers of Ares will find beauty in warlike people.”

The second step in the Phaedrus connects the observations about gods with Greek religion and the theory of Forms.

“The second step connects these observations with Greek religion and the theory of Forms (246e-247e).”

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In the Phaedrus, the cosmic journey of the gods lasts as long as they move in the circular motion at the extreme circumference, after which they return to the inner celestial region.

“The cosmic journey, however, has a certain timetable, since it lasts as long as the gods move in the circular motion at the extreme circumference, after which they return to the inner celestial region (247d-e).”

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In the Phaedrus, failure to comply with these regulations results in eschatological punishments, which initiate reincarnations into progressively worse lifestyles that start with kingship and generalship and end with tyranny.

“A failure to comply with these regulations results in eschatological punishments, which initiates reincarnations into progressively worse lifestyles that start with kingship and generalship and end with tyranny (248c-e).”

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In the Phaedrus, the more lovers emulate the particular god in themselves and their objects of love, the more they approximate to the divine condition and gain a share in the transcendent vision.

“And the more lovers emulate the particular god in themselves and their objects of love, the more they approximate to the divine condition and thus gain a share in the transcendent vision.”

In the Phaedrus, the celestial motions of the gods are restated in religious and political terms by likening them to the march of an army, the dance in a chorus, and the feast at a banquet.

“Their celestial motions are also restated in religious and political terms by likening them to the march of an army (πορεύεται, 246e5; στρατιὰ θεῶν, 246e6; τεταγμένοι, 247a3), to the dance in a chorus (θείου χοροῦ, 247a7) and to the feast at a banquet (πρὸς δαῖτα καὶ ἐπὶ θοίνην, 247a8).”

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In the opening part of the cosmogony (27c-40d), there is a comparable number of the two terms, fifteen for ouranos and ten for kosmos.

“In the opening part of the cosmogony (27c-40d), we find a comparable number of the two terms, fifteen for ouranos and ten for kosmos.”

The genealogy of Timaeus does not correspond exactly to what we find in archaic poetry either, even if it looks somewhat familiar.

“In fact, the genealogy of Timaeus does not correspond exactly to what we find in archaic poetry either, even if it looks somewhat familiar.”

The biological model is used as an explanatory framework, just like the technological model.

“The biological model is used as an explanatory framework, just like the technological.”

There is a mismatch between the Orphic theogonies and Timaeus' genealogical tree.

“First, there is a mismatch between the Orphic theogonies and Timaeus' genealogical tree.”

In none of the passages discussed is erōs presented as a causal factor, the principle of generation, as in the early Greek theogonies.

“to emphasise that in none of these passages is erōs presented as a causal factor, the principle of generation, like in the early Greek theogonies.”

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The distinctiveness of T1 with respect to the poetic tradition is that neither the theogonies of Homer or Hesiod, nor the creation myths of Orpheus or Musaeus have both Ouranos and Gaia as the original primordial gods who generate the succeeding gods.

“The distinctiveness of T1 with respect to the poetic tradition, I want to claim, is that neither the theogonies of Homer or Hesiod, nor the creation myths of Orpheus or Musaeus have both Ouranos and Gaia as the original primordial gods who generate the succeeding gods.”

Hermes's connection with a planet is established in the passage at 38d.

“One more candidate for the double identification is Hermes, whose connection with a planet is established in the passage at 38d.”

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The association between Hermes and the planet is not as strong as in the case of Ouranos or Gaia, since the text merely says that there is a star 'sacred to Hermes', which belongs to him.

“The association, however, is not as strong as in the case of Ouranos or Gaia, since the text merely says that there is a star 'sacred to Hermes' (τὸν ἱερὸν Ἑρμοῦ, 38d2), which belongs to him (emphasised by the genitive in ὁ τοῦ Ἑρμοῦ, 38d6).”

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Unlike the Phaedrus, Plato's later dialogues do not offer a full cosmological reinterpretation of the traditional gods.

“Unlike the Phaedrus, Plato's later dialogues do not offer a full cosmological reinterpretation of the traditional gods.”

As the guardian of time-markers (day and night), Gaia appears to be a typical cosmic goddess, just like the rest of the planets, which guard the numbers of time with their revolutions.

“As the guardian of timemarkers (day and night), she appears to be a typical cosmic goddess, just like the rest of the planets, whom we already saw 'guarding the numbers of time' (εἰς . . .φυλακὴν ἀριθμῶν χρόνου γέγονεν, 38c6) with their revolutions.”

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There is no wholesale identification of the remaining traditional gods with the cosmic gods.

“Moreover, there is no wholesale identification of the remaining traditional gods with the cosmic gods.”

By simultaneously arguing that soul is the source of cognition, the passage shows that soul is also responsible for the regularity, intelligence and divinity of the universe.

“In addition, by simultaneously arguing that soul is the source of cognition, the passage shows that soul is also responsible for the regularity, intelligence and divinity of the universe.”

Helios is presented as a case of mischaracterisation.

“Just like Ouranos, Helios is also presented as a case of mischaracterisation.”

Timaeus never explicitly argues that the star and the god Hermes are the same being.

“Timaeus never explicitly argues that the two of them, the star and the god, are the same being.”

The Demiurge positions himself as the maker and the father of gods in T14 (δημιουργὸς πατήρ, 41a7).

“Moreover, the Demiurge positions himself as the maker and the father of gods in T14 (δημιουργὸς πατήρ, 41a7).”

T14 marks that the theogonic discourse has completed the origins of all gods (41a3), referring to both traditional and cosmic gods.

“At this point, T14 marks that the theogonic discourse has now completed the origins of all gods (41a3), which refers to both the traditional and cosmic gods.”

Critias connects the qualities of a given deity with the chosen soil.

“The novel factor here is the connection of both features and make the qualities of a given deity reflected in the chosen soil.67”

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Critias characterises the cosmological-theological narrative as an eikōs logos.

“He rightly characterises the cosmological-theological narrative as eikōs logos (107d6-7; cf.Ti. 29d2).”

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• cites Ti. 29d2Not matched

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Critias' discourse lacks the typical conflicts of gods over territorial claims, especially for Poseidon.

“In this way, the discourse of Critias lacks the typical conflicts of gods over the territorial claims, which is especially relevant to Poseidon, who is usually depicted as an active contestant in the Greek foundation myths, the best known of which is his conflict with Athena over Athens.64”

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• cites Apollodorus, Bibl.2.1.4,3.14.1Not matched

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• cites Pausanias 2.1.6,2.14.4-5Not matched

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In the closing episode of the dialogue, people who led a vicious life will be reborn as various animals.

“There the people who led a vicious life will be reborn as various animals.”

In Critias' account, the method of division respects the nature of the gods, so every divinity receives what is due to it, namely lands fitting to each.

“The method of division has to respect the nature of the gods and so every divinity must receive what is due to it, namely the lands that 'are fitting to each of them . . .and more belong to them' (τὰ πρέποντα ἑκάστοις . . .τὸ μᾶλλον ἄλλοις προσῆκον, 109b3-4).”

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The Egyptian priest uses at least three tools to unearth deeper layers of certain myths.

“We can discern at least three tools used by the priest to unearth the deeper layers of certain myths.”

Athena and Hephaestus do not coerce the Athenians into following the idea of a perfect city, but persuade their souls, so that they would come to know why this form of the city is the best possible one.

“In other words, Athena and Hephaestus do not coerce the Athenians into following the idea of a perfect city, but persuade their souls (πειθοῖ ψυχῆς, 109c3), so that they would come to know why this form of the city is the best possible one.”

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The Atlantids are generated from Poseidon's sexual intercourse with a mortal woman named Cleito, making their origins partly divine, partly human.

“The Atlantids then are generated from Poseidon's sexual intercourse with a mortal woman named Cleito, thereby making their origins partly divine, partly human.”

Critias explains Athena's and Hephaestus' close relationship and cooperation as ensuing from their similar nature: they are lovers of wisdom and expertise, philosophoi and philotechnoi.

“The twist here is to explain their close relationship and cooperation as ensuing from their similar nature: these gods are lovers of wisdom and expertise, philosophoi and philotechnoi (Criti.109c7-8).”

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Poseidon receives an island and remodels it into a central hill surrounded by two aquatic circles and three circles made of earth, which loosely imitate the circular structure of the universe.

“Poseidon receives an island and remodels it into a central hill surrounded by two aquatic circles and three circles made of earth (Criti.113d-e), which loosely imitate the circular structure of the universe (cf.Ti. 36d).70”

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• cites Ti. 36dNot matched

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The traditional gods are dynamic networks of power, whereby a specific sanctuary or narrative can evoke only some components of this cluster without absorbing it completely.

“The traditional gods are dynamic networks of power, whereby a specific sanctuary or narrative can evoke only some components of this cluster without, however, absorbing it completely.”

The debates initiated in the Early Academy ultimately led to the collapse of the theological distinction between traditional and cosmic gods.

“how the debates initiated there ultimately led to the collapse of this theological distinction.”

The identities and competences of the Greek gods were marked by plurality, heterogeneity and sometimes discrepancy.

“Therefore, we have to admit that the identities and competences of the gods were marked by their plurality, heterogeneity and sometimes discrepancy.”

Plato engages with the old gods even though his primary theological commitments seem to lie elsewhere.

“Thus, a reader of the later dialogues finds Plato in a peculiar position: he engages with the old gods, even though his primary theological commitments seem to lie elsewhere.”

Empedocles mentions Ares, Kydoimos, Zeus, Kronos and Poseidon in relation to Strife.

“Empedocles mentions Ares, Kydoimos (personified uproar), Zeus, Kronos and Poseidon in relation to it (B128).”

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Love is called by the names of Aphrodite, Cypris, and Harmony.

“Love is conveniently called by the names of Aphrodite, Cypris, Harmony (DK31 B17, B22, B69, B70).”

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Cosmologisation of the traditional gods can make the existence of the traditional gods and their religious characteristics compatible with the philosophically confirmed nature of the universe.

“Cosmologisation can make the existence of the traditional gods and their religious characteristics compatible with the philosophically confirmed nature of the universe.”

The interaction of cosmologisation of the traditional gods with religion is a two-way street: it shapes the cosmological discourse as much as the latter re-interprets and remakes the religious tradition.

“However we choose to answer such a deceptively simple question, the important aspect of cosmologisation of the traditional gods is that its interaction with religion is a two-way streetit shapes the cosmological discourse as much as the latter re-interprets and remakes the religious tradition.”

Plato's treatment of the gods as bundles of cosmological characteristics tends to unify various gods by vaporising their internal differences.

“The important outcome of this move is that it tends to unify various gods by vaporising their internal differences.”

On a lower theological level, four physical elements each receive a name of a god whose area of influence can find some connection with the respective element: Zeus refers to aether/air, Hera to earth, Aidoneus/Hades to fire, Nestis/Persephone to water.

“On a lower theological level, there are four physical elements, each of which receives a name of a god, whose area of influence can find some connection with the respective element: Zeus refers to aether/air, Hera to earth, Aidoneus/Hades to fire, Nestis/Persephone to water (B6, A33).”

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There is nothing in the uniform psychic qualities of the gods, such as self-motion, regularity or goodness, to suggest that they must have different character patterns and preferences.

“There is nothing in the uniform psychic qualities of the gods, such as self-motion, regularity or goodness, to suggest that they must have different character patterns and preferences.”

The traditional gods do not seem to be reformed along the lines of the cosmic gods in Plato's later dialogues.

“The traditional gods do not seem to be reformed along these lines, in fact we will discuss several philosophical issues that seem to distance them from the cosmological discourse, which seems to suggest that cosmology does not guarantee the traditional gods a theological status comparable to the one in the Phaedrus.”

The key difference between Empedocles and the Phaedrus is that the Phaedrus re-interprets the traditional gods as intelligent cosmic souls that contemplate the first principles of the universe rather than the foundational principles themselves.

“The key difference between them is that the Phaedrus re-interprets the traditional gods as intelligent cosmic souls that contemplate the first principles of the universe rather than the foundational principles themselves.”

Plato's cosmology accommodates both the traditional and cosmic gods via a shared pair of the first gods.

“and accommodates both the traditional and cosmic gods via a shared pair of the first gods”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Cosmology does not guarantee the traditional gods a theological status comparable to the one in the Phaedrus.

“which seems to suggest that cosmology does not guarantee the traditional gods a theological status comparable to the one in the Phaedrus.”

This discourse does not lead to a global, systematic and coherent strategy for the traditional gods, which would amount to something like 'Plato's philosophy of religion'.

“but does not lead to a global, systematic and coherent strategy for the traditional gods, which would amount to something like 'Plato's philosophy of religion'.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Plato's cosmology follows the Greek theogonic tradition to a certain degree.

“(1) Plato's cosmology follows the Greek theogonic tradition to a certain degree”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

The tension between the traditional and cosmic gods is not circumvented by fully integrating them to cosmology.

“This tension is neither dissolved by proposing an independent theological discourse for the traditional gods, nor circumvented by fully integrating them to cosmology”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

In Plato's later dialogues, cosmology is primarily deployed to defend the divinity of stars and planets against intellectuals whose atheism and materialism forces us to regard these celestial beings as inanimate entities.

“Cosmology is primarily deployed to defend the divinity of stars and planets against the intellectuals, whose atheism and materialism forces us to regard these celestial beings as inanimate entities.”

The tension between the traditional and cosmic gods is maintained by retaining those religiously charged aspects of the traditional gods' identity that can illuminate some areas of human world, which cannot be explained by the providential activity of the cosmic gods.

“and by retaining those religiously charged aspects of their identity that can illuminate some areas of human world, which cannot be explained by the providential activity of the cosmic gods.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

The impressive but inconclusive results of the Phaedrus did not force the later dialogues to merge all traditional gods with various cosmological entities.

“The impressive, but ultimately inconclusive, results of the Phaedrus, however, did not force the later dialogues to merge all traditional gods with various cosmological entities.”

The tension between the traditional and cosmic gods is not dissolved by proposing an independent theological discourse for the traditional gods.

“This tension is neither dissolved by proposing an independent theological discourse for the traditional gods, nor circumvented by fully integrating them to cosmology”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

In the Phaedrus, the singular philosophical objective to contemplate the Form of Beauty is in tension with the multiple character profiles of traditional gods and their preferred lifestyles.

“Second, the singular philosophical objective to contemplate the Form of Beauty (the third step) is in tension with the multiple character profiles of traditional gods and their preferred lifestyles (the second and third steps).”

The tension between the traditional and cosmic gods is maintained by slightly adjusting the characteristics of the traditional gods to the conception of the cosmic gods.

“but which instead is maintained by slightly adjusting the characteristics of the traditional gods to the conception of the cosmic gods”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

In the Phaedrus, the religious heterogeneity of gods cannot be derived from the cosmological homogeneity of gods.

“First, the religious heterogeneity of gods (the second and third steps) cannot be derived from the cosmological homogeneity of gods (the first step).”

The tension between the traditional and cosmic gods results in a discourse that harmonises some parts of the Greek cultural horizon with Plato's cosmological proposals.

“So the tension between the traditional and cosmic gods results in a discourse, which harmonises some parts of the Greek cultural horizon with Plato's cosmological proposals”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Both Empedocles and Plato's Phaedrus share the idea that there must be some loose correspondence between a certain cosmological entity and its equivalent in the religious tradition in terms of activity, functions or areas of influence.

“Both Empedocles and Plato's Phaedrus share the idea that there must be some loose correspondence between a certain cosmological entity and its equivalent in the religious tradition in terms of activity, functions or areas of influence: the harmonising principle of Love conjures the conventional area of Aphrodite's activities, while the leader of the souls has to be of course Zeus, the king of the”

T1's thesis is based on unsatisfactory epistemic grounds.

“So far I have identified two major problems concerning passage 40d-41a: (1) its thesis is based on unsatisfactory epistemic grounds;”

Cosmological theogony combines both types of argumentations, because some aspects of the universe, such as the world-soul, have mathematical structure.

“Cosmological theogony combines both types of argumentations, because some aspects of the universe, such as the world-soul, have mathematical structure.”

The generation of traditional gods does not derive from the same creative force used to create the world and cosmic gods, namely the Demiurge's cosmic craftsmanship.

“The problem is that this process does not derive from the same creative force that was hitherto used in creating the world and the cosmic gods, namely the cosmic craftsmanship of the Demiurge.”

Plato unifies the two divine families in terms of their common function to originate human beings.

“(2) Plato unifies the two divine families in terms of their common function to originate human beings”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

The problematic status and peculiar nature of the traditional gods set certain limits on the epistemological status of human discourse about them.

“because their problematic status and peculiar nature set certain limits on the epistemological status of human discourse about them.”

T1 avoids describing the traditional gods in a theologically and morally unsound manner.

“Thus, it seems that T1 avoids describing the traditional gods in a theologically and morally unsound manner.”

Plato finds in religion the institutional environment for achieving moral improvement as much as leading a good civic life.

“(3) Plato finds in religion the institutional environment for achieving moral improvement as much as leading a good civic life”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Plato's students gave precedence to the cosmic gods.

“(4) Plato's students gave precedence to the cosmic gods”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Plato adopts different explanatory frameworks for the two types of gods.

“but adopts different explanatory frameworks for the two types of gods”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

T1 uses an explanatory framework that is in tension with the primary explanatory scheme.

“(2) it uses an explanatory framework that is in tension with the primary explanatory scheme.”

This indicates Plato's mild support for the Greek foundation myths and civic stories.

“which indicates his mild support for the Greek foundation myths and civic stories”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

The highest level of moral achievement lies in the assimilation to the cosmic gods via cosmological understanding.

“but the highest level of moral achievement lies in the assimilation to the cosmic gods via cosmological understanding.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

This completed the fusion of the two families of gods.

“thus completing the fusion of the two families of gods.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

Along with the cosmic gods, the Demiurge is described as a good and benevolent being.

“Along with the cosmic gods, the Demiurge is described as a good and benevolent being.”

On an even lower epistemic level, we find traditional theogony, which completely evades the eikōs-anankaios distinction.

“On an even lower epistemic level, we find traditional theogony, which completely evades the eikōs-anankaios distinction.”

Plato's students developed different strategies that incorporated cosmological functions, religious identities and ethical roles of the traditional gods into the theology of the cosmic gods.

“and developed different strategies that incorporated cosmological functions, religious identities and ethical roles of the traditional gods into the theology of the cosmic gods”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Plato's position can be uncovered once we determine the cohesion of the views of his characters.

The main problem with the epic theogonies is the dangerously impious language that depicts the successive theogonic phases as involving struggles between the gods for power and domination.

“The main problem with the epic theogonies is the dangerously impious language that depicts the successive theogonic phases as involving struggles between the gods for power and domination (R. 2.377e-378a).”

• cites R. 2.377e-378aNot matched

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In the traditional theogony of T1, explanatory principles such as the paradigms, demiurgic goodness, or teleology cannot immediately be found.

“In the traditional theogony of T1, on the other hand, we cannot immediately find such explanatory principles as the paradigms, the demiurgic goodness or teleology.”

Xenophanes postulated a single, eternal, omnipotent and omniscient God as the primary principle shaking the universe by the power of mind.

“Xenophanes postulated a single, eternal, omnipotent and omniscient God as the primary principle shaking the universe by the power of mind (DK21 B23-26).”

• cites DK21 B23-26Not matched

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Xenophanes identifies the God with the universe.

“In addition, Xenophanes identifies the God with the universe.”

In T3, the personal aspects of the ouranos are emphasised by attributes such as knowledge, friendship, and happiness.

“We can notice here the personal aspects of the ouranos emphasised by such attributes as knowledge, friendship and happiness.”

Timaeus is not actually relying on any unnamed earlier poetic figure, even if he playfully pretends to accept their authority.

“It means that Timaeus is not actually relying on any unnamed earlier poetic figure, even if he playfully pretends to accept their authority.”

Sometimes the more fitting name for the cosmic god appears to be ouranos.

“Sometimes the more fitting name for the cosmic god appears to be ouranos:”

The sense of ouranos as the whole universe is reinforced by placing ouranos in conjunction with kosmos, indicating an expanded meaning-the entire world, including the earth.

“The latter sense is reinforced here by placing ouranos in conjunction with kosmos, thus indicating an expanded meaningthe entire world, including the earth.”

The origins of the world are regarded as the origins of the ouranos-kosmos.

“In other words, the origins of the world are regarded as the origins of the ouranos-kosmos.”

By Plato's time the philosophical tradition had settled on a synonymous use of kosmos and ouranos to designate 'world'.

“And by Plato's time the philosophical tradition has settled on a synonymous use of kosmos and ouranos to designate 'world'.”

Unlike the old Ouranos, the Ouranian god cannot initiate something that changes itself or others towards something worse and evil.

“Unlike the old Ouranos, it cannot initiate something that changes itself or others towards something worse and evil (Hesiod, Th. 154-160).”

• cites Hesiod, Th. 154-160Not matched

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If the universe is to be complete, it has to be a self-sufficient and singular entity, without anything material beyond it.

“So, if the universe is to be complete, it has to be a self-sufficient and singular entity (μονογενὴς οὐρανὸς, 31b3), without anything material beyond it.”

The Demiurge assimilates the created god to himself by making Ouranos intelligent.

“The Demiurge assimilates the created god to himself (cf.μάλιστα ἐβουλήθη γενέσθαι παραπλήσια ἑαυτῷ, 29e3) by making Ouranos intelligent.”

The visible expression of this thought-process is the heavenly motions-constant, regular and harmonious revolutions that take place because of equally constant, regular and harmonious cosmic cognition.

“The visible expression of this thought-process is the heavenly motionsconstant, regular and harmonious revolutions that take place because of equally constant, regular and harmonious cosmic cognition (36d).”

It is a clear departure from the Phaedrus, where the ouranos usually means a celestial region and an epistemic boundary between the world of the sensibles and the intelligibles, but never a divinity.

“It is also a clear departure from the Phaedrus, where the ouranos usually means a celestial region (e.g.247a5, 249a7) and an epistemic boundary between the world of the sensibles and the intelligibles (247b1, 247b7-c3), but never a divinity.”

• cites Phaedrus 247a5Not matched

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• cites Phaedrus 249a7Not matched

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• cites Phaedrus 247b1Not matched

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The soul of Ouranos guarantees the perpetual order and divinity of the universe.

“The soul of Ouranos guarantees the perpetual order and divinity of the universe.”

As a created animal, Ouranos also has a body.

“As a created animal, it also has a body.”

The striking feature that the Ouranian god is generated as a bodily, ensouled animal is not accidental, for this is the best model to reflect the good intentions of the Demiurge.

“The striking feature that the Ouranian god is generated as a bodily, ensouled animal is not accidental, for this is the best model to reflect the good intentions of the Demiurge:”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Intelligence has intrinsic and supreme value (a Platonic axiom).

The creative process lacks the typical divine battles and family dramas of the Homeric and Hesiodic gods.

“The creative process, moreover, lacks the typical divine battles and family dramas of the Homeric and Hesiodic gods.”

Timaeus places the discourse at the crossroads of traditional theogony and the Presocratic cosmogony.

“We can now see that Timaeus places the discourse at the crossroads of traditional theogony and the Presocratic cosmogony.”

Through the world-soul, Ouranos receives a function to contemplate the eternal beings like the eternal paradigms, and all the created things that are within this cosmic totality.

“Through the world-soul, it receives a function to contemplate the eternal beings like the eternal paradigms, and all the created things that are within this cosmic totality (37a-b).”

The cosmogony lacks politics as understood by the poets.

“In other words, the cosmogony lacks politics as understood by the poets.”

The body of Ouranos is crafted as a visible and tangible entity proportionally constituted by the four primary elements.

“The body of Ouranos is crafted as visible and tangible entity (οὐρανὸν ὁρατὸν καὶ ἁπτόν, 32b7-8) proportionally constituted by the four primary elements (32b-32c).”

Hence, the Demiurge gave Ouranos a spherical shape composed of all the matter that existed.

“Hence, the Demiurge gave Ouranos a spherical shape composed of all the matter that existed.”

The cosmic gods have a comparable theological-cosmological characterisation to Ouranos.

“Thus, the cosmic gods have a comparable theological-cosmological characterisation to Ouranos.”

Thanks to the orderly revolutions of the cosmic gods induced by the world-soul, they provide stable measuring units of time-the numbers or general divisions, such as day, lunar month, annual circuit of the sun.

“Thanks to the orderly revolutions of the cosmic gods induced by the world-soul, they provide stable measuring units of timethe numbers or general divisions, such as day, lunar month, annual circuit of the sun etc.”

The dialogue occasionally refers to the souls of cosmic beings (38e, 41d-e, 42d-e; cf. Lg. 10.898e-899a).

“But it occasionally refers to the souls of cosmic beings (38e, 41d-e, 42d-e; cf.Lg. 10.898e-899a).”

• cites 38eNot matched

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• cites 41d-eNot matched

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• cites 42d-eNot matched

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Time is dependent on the heavenly motions.

“Hence, time is dependent on the heavenly motions.”

Timaeus turns the castrated god into an intelligent spherical universe, which all living beings must inhabit so that it would become perfect (41b6-c2).

“Timaeus turns the castrated god into an intelligent spherical universe, which all living beings must inhabit so that it would become perfect (41b6-c2).”

• cites 41b6-c2Not matched

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The motion of difference is sufficient to account for retrogradation.

“On this particular point, I follow Dicks (1970) and Vlastos (1975), who have convincingly showed that the motion of difference is sufficient to account for retrogradation.”

• cites Dicks (1970)Not matched

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• cites Vlastos (1975)Not matched

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The astral entities are repeatedly called the gods (e.g. 39e10, 40b5, 40c3, 40c6).

“It would deny their divine status, but in fact the astral entities are repeatedly called the gods (e.g.39e10, 40b5, 40c3, 40c6).”

• cites 39e10Not matched

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• cites 40b5Not matched

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• cites 40c3Not matched

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Gaia's organising role is significantly diminished.

“Another contrast with Hesiod's narrative is that Gaia's organising role is significantly diminished.”

The creation of four natural kinds is a necessary cosmological step in order to bring about the world as an 'Animal' with all of its variations.

“So, the creation of four natural kinds is a necessary cosmological step in order to bring about the world as an 'Animal' with all of its variations.”

The main function of the celestial bodies is to make the cosmic motions visible.

“The main function of the celestial bodies is to make the cosmic motions visible.”

The cosmic gods are images of the parts of the paradigm of 'Animal' after which the ouranos was created.

“The cosmic gods are images of the parts of the paradigm of 'Animal' after which the ouranos was created.”

The self-motion of the stars is the only plausible candidate for being the cause of axial rotations.

“And so the self-motion of the stars is the only plausible candidate for being the cause of axial rotations.”

The relative differences in particular orbits, rotations and speeds lay the basis for the understanding of time.

“The relative differences in particular orbits, rotations and speeds lay the basis for the understanding of time.”

There is continuity between the old Ouranos and the reformed Ouranos with respect to the reformed theological aspects: the old Ouranos serves as the point of departure to think about what needs to be changed in order to transform him into the cosmic god.

“But we can observe a continuity between the two gods with respect to the reformed theological aspects: the old Ouranos serves as the point of departure to think about what needs to be changed in order to transform him into the cosmic god.”

Whichever interpretative strategy one adopts, the cosmic gods are still the functional parts of Ouranos and so integral to it.

“From what we discussed above, it is clear that whichever interpretative strategy one adopts, the cosmic gods are still the functional parts of Ouranos and so integral to it.”

The origin of the cosmic gods is associated with the question of time.

“More specifically, the origin of the cosmic gods is associated with the question of time.”

The cosmic body encompasses within itself all the living beings, including the younger gods.

“The cosmic body encompasses within itself all the living beings, including the younger gods (31a-b with 39e-40a).”

The prooimion and cosmogonic discourse is used to thoroughly revise the poetic features of the Ouranian god.

“The prooimion and cosmogonic discourse is used to thoroughly revise the poetic features of the Ouranian god.”

There is no place for generational change among the gods in cosmological discourse, because the cosmic gods are all made after the permanent image of Ouranos.

“There is no place for such a change in cosmological discourse, because the cosmic gods are all made after the permanent image of Ouranos.”

The generation of cosmic gods (the planets and the stars) is an integral part of the generation of the great cosmic god.

“The generation of cosmic gods, the planets and the stars, is an integral part of the generation of the great cosmic god.”

From the cosmological perspective, the collective role of cosmic gods is to become a kind of cosmic clock.

“From the cosmological perspective, the collective role of cosmic gods is to become a kind of cosmic clock (χρόνον ὄντα τὰς τούτων πλάνας, 39d1).”

• cites 39d1Not matched

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The only properly eternal entities are the Demiurge, the paradigm of Animal and the beings inside the paradigm.

“The only properly eternal entities are the Demiurge, the paradigm of Animal and the beings inside the paradigm.”

Timaeus explicitly says that the stable and uniform axial rotation comes from a different kinetic source than the stable and uniform motion of sameness.

“First, Timaeus explicitly says that the stable and uniform axial rotation comes from a different kinetic source than the stable and uniform motion of sameness (cf.κινήσεις δὲ δύο προσῆψεν ἑκάστῳ, τὴν μὲν ἐν ταὐτῷ κατὰ ταὐτά, περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν ἀεὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ἑαυτῷ διανοουμένῳ τὴν δὲ εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν, ὑπὸ τῆς ταὐτοῦ καὶ ὁμοίου περιφορᾶς κρατουμένῳ, 40a7-b2).”

• cites 40a7-b2Not matched

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Without souls, the cosmic gods would become inanimate objects, mere stones or globs of fire.

“Without souls they would become inanimate objects, mere stones or rather globs of fire.”

T1 is in tune with the general method used in T8-T9.

“In the light of these findings, T1 might look less challenging to the basic structure of cosmologyit is in tune with the general method used in T8-T9,”

The world is a child of Intellect and Necessity deliberately planned to be conceived rather than an accidental outcome of the interaction between them.

“The world is a child of Intellect and Necessity deliberately planned to be conceived rather than an accidental outcome of the interaction between them.”

Timaeus' version of traditional theogony does not depend on any particular poetic or religious source.

“We will see that Timaeus' version of traditional theogony does not depend on any particular poetic or religious source.”

The biological model shows that ontology is pluralistic rather than monistic.

“first, it shows that ontology is pluralistic rather than monistic;”

The biological model explains how Intellect overcomes potential threats to the production of a good universe by using 'erotic' persuasion.

“second, it explains how Intellect overcomes the potential threats to the production of a good universe by using 'erotic' persuasion.”

When Timaeus uses sexually connotated concepts, he does not commit himself to a robust ontological position.

“So when Timaeus uses sexually connotated concepts, he does not commit himself to a robust ontological position.”

When the poets are mentioned in the dialogues, they are usually called the 'children of Muses'.

“When the poets are mentioned in the dialogues, they are usually called the 'children of Muses'.”

• cites [61] 61. Bruit Zaidman, L., and Schmitt Pantel, P. (1992) Religion in the Ancient Greek City. Cambridge. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As a result, the familiar gods find new cosmological grounding for their existence in the reformed cosmic god.

“As a result, the familiar gods find new cosmological grounding for their existence in the reformed cosmic god.”

If the divine genealogy had started with Ocean, or Chaos, or any other Greek god, Timaeus would be unable to position the traditional narrative within his cosmology, because the origins of Ouranos and Gaia would depend on some traditional Greek gods and would contradict the previous claim that the cosmic gods were created by the Demiurge.

“If the divine genealogy had started with Ocean, or Chaos, or any other Greek god, Timaeus would be unable to position the traditional narrative within his cosmology, because the origins of Ouranos and Gaia would depend on some traditional Greek gods and, as a consequence, it would contradict the previous claim that the cosmic gods were in fact created by the Demiurge.”

The soul of the reformed Ouranos elevates the core function to new cosmological dimensions.

“and the soul of the reformed Ouranos, which elevates the core function to new cosmological dimensions.”

The particular arrangement of the divine successions is peculiarly convenient to Timaeus.

“But the particular arrangement of the divine successions is peculiarly convenient to Timaeus.”

The double identification creates a paradox by making one and the same god a traditional deity, whose function is to generate further gods, and a cosmic being, whose function is simply to move and contemplate various entities inside it.

“But it also creates a paradox by making one and the same god a traditional deity, whose function is to generate further gods, and a cosmic being, whose function is simply to move and contemplate various entities inside it.”

The new cosmic god does not exhaust the whole nature of Ouranos.

“However, the new cosmic god does not exhaust the whole nature of Ouranos.”

The new Ouranos has increased physical extension, which now encompasses the whole cosmos.

“the increased physical extension of Ouranos, which now encompasses the whole cosmos,”

Ouranos can acquire an important role in the cosmological discourse of philosophers while still preserving his religious significance to ordinary believers.

“And for this reason, Ouranos can acquire an important role in the cosmological discourse of philosophers, while still preserving his religious significance to the ordinary believers.”

Timaeus attempts to build a bridge between the two discourses because of the versatile nature of Ouranos.

“Timaeus attempts to build a bridge between the two discourses because of the versatile nature of Ouranos.”

Ouranos has a double nature, cosmological and religious.

“A conclusion to the effect that Ouranos has a double nature (cosmological and religious) might look paradoxical to the modern reader, but it conforms to Greek religious beliefs.”

One and the same Greek god had different ways of articulation depending on a particular place, festival, tradition and register.

“One and the same Greek god had different ways of articulation depending on a particular place, festival, tradition and register.”

• cites VersnelNot matched

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The main difference between the old and new Ouranos includes the theological priority of Ouranos over Gaia.

“The main difference lies in the theological priority of Ouranos over Gaia, the increased physical extension of Ouranos, which now encompasses the whole cosmos, and the soul of the reformed Ouranos, which elevates the core function to new cosmological dimensions.”

The explanatory scheme of the origins of the traditional gods is consistent with the cosmological discourse.

“On the one hand, the explanatory scheme of their origins is consistent with the cosmological discourse.”

The starting point for traditional theogony are the two gods, Ouranos and Gaia, whose existence is assured by the eikōs muthos.

“On the other hand, the starting point for traditional theogony are the two gods, whose existence is assured by the eikōs muthos.”

T1 firmly rejects the possibility that the religious beliefs of T1 can contain a rudimentary form of cosmological knowledge and thus have an epistemic status approximating Aristotelian endoxa.

“But T1 firmly rejects such a possibilitythe children of gods are unambiguously denied any likelihood.”

The traditional theogony is partly absorbed into Timaeus' cosmological theogony.

“Thus, the traditional theogony is partly absorbed into Timaeus' cosmological theogony.”

In the context of traditional theogony (T1), Ouranos recovers some of the more conventional aspects, which are not immediately derivable from the cosmological discourse.

“For we have to remember that in the context of traditional theogony (T1), Ouranos recovers some of the more conventional aspects, which are not immediately derivable from the cosmological discourse.”

Plato retains the distinction between the traditional and the cosmic gods.

“Thus, Plato retains the distinction between the traditional and the cosmic gods.”

Although each of these gods may be considered as deities with a double identity (cosmological and religious), the double identification means different things in each of these cases.

“Although each of these gods may be considered as deities with a double identity (cosmological and religious), the problem is that the double identification means different things in each of these cases.”

Gaia is conceptualised in a similar way to Ouranos: she is a cosmic being, who also has a conventional religious role to generate the traditional gods.

“Gaia is conceptualised in a similar way to Ouranos: she is a cosmic being, who also has a conventional religious role to generate the traditional gods.”

The phrase 'our nurturer' invokes the religious images of Gaia, such as the eldest goddess, the giver of life, the benevolent human nurturer, the provider of food and a means of physical survival.

“The phrase invokes the religious images of Gaia, such as the eldest goddess, the giver of life, the benevolent human nurturer, the provider of food and a means of physical survival.”

Gaia also has a higher rank, that of the maker of time-markers.

“But she also has a higher rank, that of the maker of time-markers.”

The case of Apollo-Helios is more complicated, for Helios is already a cosmic being in the religious tradition (the sun).

“The case of Apollo-Helios is even more complicated, for Helios is already a cosmic being in the religious tradition (the sun).”

The ordinary Greeks do injustice to Helios by thinking that the sun is a being with irregular motions, namely a planet or a wanderer.

“On the one hand, the ordinary Greeks do injustice to this god by thinking that the sun is a being with irregular motions, namely a planet or a wanderer (Lg.7.821b; cf.7.818c).”

• cites Lg.7.821bNot matched

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• cites 7.818cNot matched

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The atheistic intellectuals deny Helios's divine status by considering the sun to be a mere inanimate stone.

“On the other hand, the atheistic intellectuals deny his divine status by considering the sun to be a mere inanimate stone (10.886d-e; cf.10.889b).”

• cites 10.886d-eNot matched

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• cites 10.889bNot matched

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The link between the mythological Zeus and the Demiurge is too weak to substantiate a more robust identification.

“Thus, one can assume that the mythological Zeus provided some inspiration for the image of the Demiurge, but the link between the two is still too weak to substantiate a more robust identification.”

Some cosmological themes of the Timaeus fall outside the theological discourse of Laws 10 simply because of the latter's argumentative structure and philosophical objectives.

“Some cosmological themes of the Timaeus fall outside the theological discourse of Laws 10 simply because of the latter's argumentative structure and philosophical objectives.”

The purpose of redefining Ouranos was to give some limited place to traditional religious beliefs within the new cosmology of the Timaeus.

“We saw that the purpose of redefining Ouranos was to give some limited place to the traditional religious beliefs within the new cosmology of the Timaeus.”

A shift in cultural attitude towards Helios took place from the classical period onwards, based primarily on his venerable image in epic and dramatic poetry and reinforced by growing Greek interest in meteorology, cosmology, and mystery cults such as Orphism.

“However, a shift in cultural attitude towards the god slowly took place from the classical period onwards, a change that was primarily based on his venerable image in epic and dramatic poetry and then reinforced by the growing Greek interest in meteorology and cosmology as well as by the significance of Helios in the mystery cults such as Orphism.”

• cites [96] 96. Drozdek, A. (2007) Greek Philosophers as Theologians. London.Not matched

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The philosophical impact of Book 10 on Helios does not amount to what happens to Ouranos in the Timaeus, because Helios's physical body or cosmological function is not redefined so as to make him entirely new.

“However, the philosophical impact of Book 10 on Helios does not amount to what happens to Ouranos in the Timaeus, because the notion of his physical body or cosmological function is not redefined to such an extent that the old god would become someone entirely new.”

The Athenian does not use the cosmological and theological defence of Helios to support the cult of Apollo.

“The Athenian does not use the cosmological and theological defence of Helios to support the cult of Apollo.”

The earliest uncontroversial instance of connecting Apollo and Helios is Euripides' Phaethon, where Clymene addresses Helios as Apollo, the destroyer.

“The earliest uncontroversial instance is Euripides' Phaethon, where Clymene in her desperate hour of seeing Phaethon perished addresses Helios, whom she holds responsible for destroying her son, by calling him Apollo, the destroyer (ἀπώλεσας, 224 = fr.781 CC).”

• cites Euripides' PhaethonNot matched

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The double identification of Ouranos is inherently more straightforward than the one between Apollo and Helios, because the latter links two distinct traditional gods, one of whom has already received a cosmological update.

“At the very least, however, the double identification of Ouranos is inherently more straightforward than the one between Apollo and Helios, for in the latter case the issue is that two distinct traditional gods are linked together, one of whom has already received a cosmological update.”

The world-soul moves the cosmic gods in astral revolutions not by being inside them nor by bodily collision, but by carrying them in the circles of sameness and difference.

“On the other hand, the world-soul moves the cosmic gods in astral revolutions not by being inside them, which is option (1), nor by bodily collision, which is option (2), but by carrying them in the circles of sameness and difference.”

The world-soul is receptive of Intellect because its activity resembles the motions of Intellect.

“The Athenian maintains that the world-soul is 'receptive of Intellect' (νοῦν προσλαβοῦσα, 10.897b1-2), because its activity resembles the motions of Intellect (10.897c, 10.897e).”

• cites 10.897b1-2Not matched

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• cites 10.897cNot matched

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• cites 10.897eNot matched

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Option (3) is the closest we can get to explaining the relationship between the world-soul and cosmic gods in T12, because it postulates properties by which an external soul can affect a body without bodily collision.

“But option (3) is the closest we can get to explaining the relationship between the world-soul and cosmic gods in T12, because it postulates the kinds of properties thanks to which an external soul can affect a body without a bodily collision.”

Plato's Laws is silent about whether Apollo and Helios are to be regarded as a single god or as two beings worshipped as a single god in a shared sacred space.

“Unfortunately, Plato's Laws is silent about this question as well.”

The myth of Kronos transforms Kronos from a ruthless tyrant of Hesiod's Theogony into a benevolent leader of gods who ensured a utopian political environment for human beings.

“In a similar way, the myth of Kronos seems to transform Kronos from a ruthless tyrant of Hesiod's Theogony into a benevolent leader of gods, who ensured that the latter would maintain a utopian political environment for human beings (4.713b-714b).”

• cites 4.713b-714bNot matched

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T14 cannot confirm that the Demiurge creates a new class of gods, the demiurgic ancillaries, which will implement the anthropogonic function.

“But T14 cannot confirm such a reading: just before the beginning of the speech, Timaeus specifies that the Demiurge addresses the two groups of (1.1) and (1.2) by 'speaking to them' (λέγει πρὸς αὐτοὺς, 41a5) and the demiurgic function (δημιουργίαν, 41c4-5; see further T15) that will be mentioned in the speech is among the things said to them (ὁ τόδε τὸ πᾶν γεννήσας τάδε, 41a5-6).”

After the origins of the traditional gods, the Demiurge gives these theoi the task of generating human beings in a well-known speech.

“The question is pressing, because after the origins of the traditional gods the Demiurge gives these theoi the task of generating human beings in a well-known speech (41a-d, see T14-T15 below).”

• cites 41a-dNot matched

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The text leading to the allocation of the anthropogonic function unifies the two groups of gods into a new joint group of theoi.

“My conclusion then is that the text leading to the allocation of the anthropogonic function unifies the two groups of gods into a new joint group of theoi.”

Plato never explicitly addresses the paradoxical question of how a single god can be a cosmic totality and a parent of younger divinities at the same time.

“First, Plato never explicitly addresses the paradoxical question of how a single god can be a cosmic totality and a parent of younger divinities at the same time.”

The self-motion of planets is only limited to producing the axial rotation.

“We saw that the self-motion of planets is only limited to producing the axial rotation.”

The Demiurge confesses his inability to continue the work as he faces a problem not entirely unlike Midas: whatever he touches becomes immortal.

“In T15, the Demiurge confesses his inability to continue the work as he faces a problem not entirely unlike of Midas: whatever he touches becomes immortal.”

The inclusive alternative makes better sense of the distinction between the gods in the passage.

“This inclusive alternative has far more advantages: it is more flexible with respect to the dramatic and literary composition; it does not commit to dubious theoretical assumptions, such as voluntary irregular celestial motions; and it makes better sense of the distinction between the gods in the passage.”

The formulation at T14 is broader and more inclusive than the formulation in Karfik's favoured passage at 40a-d.

“The formulation at T14 is broader and more inclusive than the formulation in Karfik's favoured passage at 40a-d.”

Such a reading finds a parallel in Laws 11.930e7-931a7, where the Athenian Stranger introduces a comparable division between the visible gods of the cosmos and the invisible traditional gods, for whom devotees set up visible representations.

“Finally, such a reading would also find a parallel in the Laws 11.930e7-931a7, where the Athenian Stranger introduces a comparable division between the visible gods of the cosmos and the invisible traditional gods, for whom devotees set up visible representations.”

• cites Laws 11.930e7-931a7Not matched

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The 'wandering' of the planets is dependent on the motions of the world-soul.

“Instead, their 'wandering' is dependent on the motions of the world-soul.”

Karfik's thesis on the particular members within the distinction, the groups in parts (1.1) and (1.2), does not hold.

“Second, Karfik's thesis on the particular members within the distinction, the groups in parts (1.1) and (1.2), does not hold either.”

The personal assurance of the Demiurge grounds the continuous immortality of the younger gods in the exception provided by the will of the Demiurge, a divine intervention into the normal course of events.

“It grounds the continuous immortality of the younger gods in the exception provided by the will of the Demiurge, a divine intervention into the normal course of events.”

The personal assurance of the Demiurge anticipates the Affinity argument in the Phaedo, according to which anything that is put together eventually has to split up and change, and body is precisely such a compound (78b-80d).

“Finally, the personal assurance of the Demiurge anticipates the Affinity argument in the Phaedo, according to which anything that is put together eventually has to split up and change, and body is precisely such a compound (78b-80d).”

• cites Phaedo 78b-80dNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Timaeus is a theogony of Ouranos that deliberately engages with poetic theogonies and philosophical cosmologies.

“This chapter has approached the Timaeus as a theogony of Ouranos, which deliberately engages with poetic theogonies and philosophical cosmologies.”

The composition of T14 shows that the closing remarks on theogony are meant to be continuous with the speech of the Demiurge.

“The composition of T14 shows that the closing remarks on theogony are meant to be continuous with the speech of the Demiurge.”

Combined with the potential destructibility and hence the potential mortality of the younger gods, their nature is well designed to include the capacity to make mortal creatures.

“Combined with the potential destructibility and hence the potential mortality of the younger gods, their nature is well designed to include the capacity to make mortal creatures.”

When Timaeus refers to all the gods in T14 (πάντες, 41a3), he wants to embrace the results of both theogonies.

“When Timaeus refers to all the gods in T14 (πάντες, 41a3), he wants to embrace the results of both theogonies.”

The positive role of Ouranos is precisely to serve as the bridge between the old religious thought and the new cosmological science.

“The positive role of Ouranos is precisely to serve as the bridge between the old religious thought and the new cosmological science.”

In the rest of the Timaeus, the distinction between cosmic and traditional gods collapses; the gods are interchangeably called theoi or theos without specifying which group is meant.

“In the rest of the dialogue, the distinction collapses, the gods are interchangeably called the theoi or theos without specifying which group of gods we should have in mind.”

The exclusive reading does not hold water.

“For the above reasons the exclusive reading does not hold water.”

The planets cannot appear or disappear to humans as they wish, for their intentions always result in the regular axial rotation.

“In other words, the planets cannot appear or disappear to humans as they wish, for their intentions always result in the regular axial rotation.”

The exclusive rendering at 41a7 contradicts lines 41a3-6 immediately above the address, which refer to all the gods inclusively.

“Finally, both ancients and moderns have noticed that the exclusive rendering at 41a7 contradicts lines 41a3-6 immediately above the address, which refer to all the gods inclusively.”

In T14, the traditional and cosmic gods are divided in terms of human epistemic access to the gods.

“The two groups are then divided in terms of human epistemic access to the gods.”

Later Plato abstains from completing the project of a fully cosmological reading of the traditional gods and leaves it to the next generation of Academics to reconsider the distinction between the two types of discourse.

“But later Plato abstains from completing this project and, instead, he leaves it to the next generation of Academics to reconsider the distinction between the two types of discourse.”

The intensifying sense to the phrase θεοὶ θεῶν is consistent with the inclusive reading, according to which the Demiurge addresses both groups of gods.

“On the other hand, the intensifying sense to the phrase θεοὶ θεῶν is consistent with the inclusive reading, according to which the Demiurge addresses both groups of gods.”

The theogony of the Timaeus is devoid of antagonistic political relations such as the mutilation, imprisonment, or elimination of hostile gods.

“The theogony of the Timaeus is devoid of antagonistic political relations, such as the mutilation, imprisonment, or elimination of hostile gods.”

We cannot construe the irregularities in motion, such as retrogradation, as originating from the desires of planets.

“For this reason, we cannot construe the irregularities in motion, such as retrogradation, as originating from the desires of planets.”

Karfik's interpretation that part (1.1) includes stars and part (1.2) refers to planets is problematic.

“This interpretation, however, is quite problematic.”

The literary composition of T14 does not suggest that the traditional gods are excluded from the audience addressed by the speech of the Demiurge.

“Our initial overview of the passage, therefore, leads to the conclusion that the literary composition does not suggest that the traditional gods are excluded from the audience addressed by the speech of the Demiurge.”

The joint use of the two titles connects the two families of gods rather than disconnects them.

“The joint use of the two titles then seems to connect the two families of gods rather than disconnect them.”

The younger gods are fit for the more menial task of creating imperfect beings, because even though these gods are exceptionally good, they fall short of perfection due to their own lack of omnipotence and eternity.

“The younger gods are fit for the more menial task of creating imperfect beings, because even though these gods are exceptionally good, they fall short of perfection due to their own lack of omnipotence and eternity.”

According to the providential plan, the creation of the universe (οὐρανός, 41b8) as an Animal that encompasses all other animal species was the guiding idea behind the work of the Demiurge.

“According to this plan, the creation of the universe (οὐρανός, 41b8) as an Animal that encompasses all other animal species was the guiding idea behind the work of the Demiurge.”

Ouranos, along with Gaia, becomes the centrepiece that thematically and dramatically joins together the philosophical and traditional ideas in Plato's cosmology.

“My conclusion is that Ouranos, along with Gaia, becomes the centrepiece, which thematically and dramatically joins together the philosophical and traditional ideas in Plato's cosmology.”

Plato presents Ouranos as primarily a cosmic being, remarkable for his orderly, all-embracing body and rational soul.

“Plato presents Ouranos as primarily a cosmic being, remarkable for his orderly, all-embracing body and rational soul.”

The evidence suggests that Plato was not firmly committed to relating Intellect, the world-soul, or both with Zeus in the Timaeus and the Laws.

“And yet the evidence suggests that he was not firmly committed to such a notion in the Timaeus and the Laws.”

The broader distinction in T14 should not be conflated with the earlier and narrower distinction at 40a-d.

“For this reason, the broader distinction in T14 should not be conflated with the earlier and narrower distinction.”

The inclusive alternative does not commit to dubious theoretical assumptions, such as voluntary irregular celestial motions.

“This inclusive alternative has far more advantages: it is more flexible with respect to the dramatic and literary composition; it does not commit to dubious theoretical assumptions, such as voluntary irregular celestial motions; and it makes better sense of the distinction between the gods in the passage.”

The fixed number of gods is part of the providential plan designed by the Demiurge.

“The fixed number of gods is part of the providential plan designed by the Demiurge.”

The double nature of Ouranos makes him the main cosmic and traditional god.

“All in all, the double nature of Ouranos makes him the main cosmic and traditional god.”

The title 'father' links the Demiurge to the biological framework used in the origins of the traditional gods.

“We saw in Section 1.5 that the title 'father' links the Demiurge to the biological framework used in the origins of the traditional gods.”

In the origins of the cosmic gods, the Demiurge functions more as the 'maker'.

“In the origins of the cosmic gods, he functions more as the 'maker'.”

By extension the Demiurge is the ultimate causal origin of the remaining traditional gods as well.

“It means that by extension the Demiurge is the ultimate causal origin of the remaining traditional gods as well.”

Critias justifies his privileged access to divine knowledge through his own family and genealogy.

“Critias justifies his own privileged access to the divine knowledge precisely through his own family and genealogy (20d-21b)the matters that are oikeia to him.”

• cites 20d-21bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Critias reverses the traditional aetiological sequence by starting with the drawing of lots and then transforming the traditional gods into the founding fathers and mothers.

“We can see that this aetiological sequence is reversed by starting with the drawing of lots and then transforming the traditional gods into the founding fathers and mothers.”

Among themselves, the younger gods are equal irrespective of being traditional or cosmic gods, because they share the function of creating and caring for human beings.

“But among themselves they are equal irrespective of whether they belong to the group of traditional or cosmic gods, since they all have a shared function of creating and taking care of human beings.”

Critias' second speech does not advocate that its method is of higher epistemic value in relation to cosmology.

“Thus, it does not advocate that this method is of higher epistemic value in relation to cosmology, despite the fact that Critias remains committed to the quasi-historical approach inherited from the Egyptians, though without hiding before their voices anymore (an exception: 110b).”

• cites 110bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In Critias' account, geographical and theological differences make each city somewhat unique.

“But now the geographical and theological differences make each city somewhat unique.68”

• cites Galen, QAM 64.19-67.16Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pradeau (1997) 56-66Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lg. 5.736c-738aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The core of divine practical reasoning at this cosmological stage is the distribution of roles or honours among the gods.

“the core of the divine practical reasoning at this cosmological stage is the distribution of roles or, to use a more religiously charged term, the honours (timai) that belong to the gods.”

By imitating the craftsmanship of the Demiurge, the younger gods become like apprentices of the master craftsman working in a cosmic workshop.

“By imitating the craftsmanship of the Demiurge, the younger gods become like apprentices of the master craftsman working in a cosmic workshop.”

The creation of the body and the soul will give all the prerequisites for human beings to understand their place in the world and their dependency on the gods.

“Therefore, the creation of the body and the soul will give all the prerequisites for human beings to understand their place in the world and their dependency on the gods.”

The younger gods will have a continuous role in the human life cycle.

“They show that the younger gods will have a continuous role in the human life cycle.”

T15 makes clear that by endowing human beings with souls, the younger gods will turn humans into moral creatures capable of understanding justice and piety.

“T15 makes clear that by endowing human beings with souls, the younger gods will turn humans into moral creatures capable of understanding justice, namely the right social relations between themselves, and piety, which is the proper relation to the divine creators (θεῖον λεγόμενον ἡγεμονοῦν τε ἐν αὐτοῖς τῶν ἀεὶ δίκῃ καὶ ὑμῖν ἐθελόντων ἕπεσθαι, 41c7-8).”

Apart from the basic distinction between two ways of originating human beings, namely natural growth and artificial construction, these stories do not form a common pattern.

“We can see that apart from the basic distinction between two ways of originating human beings, namely natural growth and artificial construction, these stories do not form a common pattern.”

The technological model is carefully based on teleological reasoning of the Demiurge and tailored to the objectives of the providential plan.

“Time and again we saw that the technological model is carefully based on teleological reasoning of the Demiurge and tailored to the objectives of the providential plan.”

It is safe to say that Timaeus follows the earlier philosophers, when his gods employ crafts comparable to metallurgy, carpentry, painting and agriculture in constructing the world and its beings.

“At any rate, it is safe to say that Timaeus follows the earlier philosophers, when his gods employ crafts comparable to metallurgy, carpentry, painting and agriculture in constructing the world and its beings.”

The last three imperatives (4-6) mark a future transition to the third phase after the anthropogenesis, which will be the present world.

“The last three imperatives (4-6) -'generate' (γεννᾶτε, 41c2), 'grow' (αὐξάνετε, 41c3) human beings and 'receive' (δέχεσθε, 41c3) them after their deathmark a future transition to the third phase after the anthropogenesis, which will be the present world.”

The Demiurge's speech gives a model of goal-directed practical reasoning.

“The Demiurge's speech establishes another layer of the primacy of the Demiurge in addition to his function as the creator and the father of the universe, and it also gives us a model of goal-directed practical reasoning.”

By assigning the anthropogonic function to the younger gods, the Demiurge creates a unique society of expert gods equal in function.

“Therefore, by assigning the anthropogonic function to the younger gods, the Demiurge creates a unique society of expert gods that are equal in terms of their function.”

The Egyptian constitution corresponds to Socrates' summary of his speech from the previous day in the Timaeus (17c-19a).

“Crucially, it corresponds to Socrates' summary of his speech from the previous day in the Timaeus (17c-19a), which is the more relevant comparandum.”

• cites 17c-19aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Another aspect of the anthropogonic function of the gods is the supervision of the eschatological mechanism.

“Another aspect of the anthropogonic function of the gods is the supervision of the eschatological mechanism (see further Section 3.1).”

Timaeus' understanding of anthropogony is not antagonistic to conventional religious thinking insofar as he associates the origins of humanity with the gods.

“On the whole, Timaeus' understanding of anthropogony is not antagonistic to the more conventional patterns of religious thinking in so far as he associates the origins of humanity with the gods.”

The younger gods have some autonomy in implementing anthropogonic functions because the Demiurge does not intervene and departs from world-building.

“They have some autonomy in the implementation of the anthropogonic functions, since the Demiurge does not intervene into their sphere of action and departs from the world-building altogether.”

In this way, the younger gods will create the conditions for the emergence of politics and religion.

“In this way, the younger gods will create the conditions for the emergence of politics and religion.”

Critias has more faith in the value of written memory than Plato's Phaedrus.

“Be that as it may, the emphasis on the recorded history signals that Critias has more faith in the value of written memory than Plato's Phaedrus (274c-275b), in which king Thamus objects that writing will increase forgetfulness, since people will no longer rely on their own memory, and it will grant only superficial wisdom, for they will know many contingent facts without any supporting arguments.”

• cites 274c-275bNot matched

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The Egyptian constitution actually has three main social classes: educated priests, military warriors, and providers such as craftsmen, shepherds, farmers and hunters.

“But if we slightly modify the perspective, the Egyptian constitution actually has three main social classes: (1) the educated class (priests); (2) the military class (warriors); (3) the providers (craftsmen, shepherds, farmers, hunters).”

The younger gods are strictly subordinate to the Demiurge in following his orders and providential plan.

“Thus, the younger gods have a strict subordination to their creator in as much as they follow and implement his orders and providential plan.”

The specific way in which the younger gods are to substitute the Demiurge is by imitating (μιμούμενοι, 41c5) him as far as their nature allows them.

“Now the specific way in which the younger gods are to substitute the Demiurge is by imitating (μιμούμενοι, 41c5) him as far as their nature allows them.”

The universe of the Timaeus is not anthropocentric, but zoocentric.

“The universe of the Timaeus is not anthropocentric, but zoocentric.”

What separates Timaeus from poets and civic myths is not the technological approach but that the generation of human beings defines the younger gods as a community of beings.

“What separates Timaeus from the poets and the civic myths is not so much the manner in which the gods create human beingsthe technological approachbut the fact that the generation of human beings defines the younger gods as a community of beings.”

The Demiurge turns the younger gods into mediators forming a single commission of auxiliary forces tasked with supervising human beings.

“In a similar way, the Demiurge turns the younger gods into his mediators, who form a single commission of auxiliary forces with the task of supervising human beings.”

The reformed god Ouranos retained a significant theological role in the philosophy of the Academics.

“Specifically, we have seen that the reformed god Ouranos retained a significant theological role in the philosophy of the Academics.”

All three meanings of the term ouranos are present in the Epinomis.

“It appears that all three meanings of the term ouranos are present in the Epinomis (cf.Aristotle Cael.278b9-21).”

• cites Aristotle Cael.278b9-21Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The range of associations between cosmological principles and traditional gods is quite limited in the other surviving testimonies of the early philosophers.

“The range of associations between cosmological principles and traditional gods is quite limited in the other surviving testimonies of the early philosophers.”

• cites Philolaus, DK44 B7Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Huffman (1993)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

One piece of evidence shows that Eudoxus worked on the theological translations as such.

“One piece of evidence, however, shows that Eudoxus worked on the theological translations as such.”

• cites Plutarch, De Is. et Osir.64Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

With respect to human beings, the younger gods are more similar to the absolute kings of the age of Kronos, whose function is to nurture the subjects.

“But with respect to the human beings, they are more similar to the absolute kings of the age of Kronos, whose function is to nurture the subjects (cf.Plt.271d-272b with Ti. 41b-d).”

• cites Plt.271d-272bNot matched

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• cites Ti. 41b-dNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The educational aspect of festivals is based on the account of paideia given at 2.653c and 2.654a.

“The educational aspect of festivals is based on the account of paideia given at 2.653c, 2.654a.”

• cites 2.653cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 2.654aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Derveni author was probably the first thinker who proposed viewing Ouranos and Olympus as distinct.

“The Derveni author was probably the first thinker who proposed viewing the two concepts as distinct (col.12).”

• cites Kotwick (2017) 198 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The paper argues that Critias frames the Athens-Atlantis story not about a specific political event in the distant past, but about the beginnings of cities, and thus about political origins as such.

“To sum up, I have argued that Critias frames the Athens-Atlantis story in such a way as to make it not about a specific political event, which happened in the distant past, but about the beginnings of cities, and thus about the political origins as such.”

The purpose of the anthropogonic stories is to justify some aspects of the current human condition.

“It is important to add that the purpose of the anthropogonic stories is to justify some aspects of the current human condition.”

• cites Vernant (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Clay (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Loraux (2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Early Academy actively engaged with some of Plato's religious conceptions.

“In Chapter 4 I have argued, moreover, that the Early Academy actively engaged with some of Plato's religious conceptions.”

This function is also given to the gods in Laws 10.904a-905c.

“This function is also given to the gods in Lg. 10.904a-905c.”

• cites Lg. 10.904a-905cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Broadie's claim that the sun has no functional role in the sublunary realm in Plato's later dialogues is an overstatement.

“Broadie's (2002) 309-11 claim that the sun has no functional role in the sublunary realm in Plato's later dialogues is an overstatement.”

• cites Broadie (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

These reformed institutions and purified stories will be based on the ancestral tradition and its authority.

“These reformed institutions and purified stories will be based on the ancestral tradition and its authority (5.738b-e, 7.793a-d, 11.930e-931a, 12.959b).”

• cites 5.738b-eNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 7.793a-dNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 11.930e-931aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This idea is not a result of Zeus's practical reasoning, but of advice given by Gaia (Th.884).

“It is noteworthy that this idea is not a result of Zeus's practical reasoning, but of advice given by Gaia (Th.884).”