Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Race was seen as biological proof of difference, an elemental category of belonging.

“Race was seen as biological proof of difference, an elemental category of belonging.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The 'idea of race' was integral to the mentality of post-Victorian generations in a way that is repudiated in the twenty-first century.

“The 'idea of race' was integral to the mentality of post-Victorian generations in a way that is repudiated in the twenty-first century.”

May combine two claims.

Many of the postwar generation turned to pacifism or something like it, and some turned to communism.

“Many turned to pacifism, or something like it.3 Some turned to communism.”

• cites [3] 3. Deirdre McMahon, 'Ireland and the Empire-Commonwealth, 1900-1948', in Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. IV: Twentieth century (ed. J. M. Brown and W. R. Louis, 1999), pp. 143-6. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Exports of British cotton goods to India dropped from 1,248 million square yards in 1929 to 376 million in 1931, a loss in value from £26 million to £5.5 million.

“Exports of cotton goods to India dropped rapidly from 1,248 million square yards in 1929 to 376 million in 1931, a loss in value from £26 million to £5.5 million.”

• cites [22] 22. This admirable short introduction to Churchill is based upon Addison's long entry on Churchill in the ODNB (2004), vol. XI, pp. 653-85.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The barbaric horrors of the Great War did much to break the psychological bondage of the colonised elite, whose writers began to produce critiques of the 'civilising mission'.

“The barbaric horrors it revealed 'did much to break the psychological bondage of the colonised elite', whose writers now began to produce critiques of the 'civilising mission'”

• cites [7] 7. Judith M. Brown, Nehru: a political life (2003) or Nehru (1999), p. 33.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Imperial Britain survived the 'crisis of empire', if not with naval superiority, or honour, intact.

“Imperial Britain survived the 'crisis of empire', if not with naval superiority, or honour, intact.”

May combine two claims.

These racist states were all independent states over which Britain had no real control.

“These were all independent states (or claimed to be) over which Britain had no real control.”

May combine two claims.

Total exports of British cotton piece-goods declined from 7,035 million square yards in 1913 to 1,448 million in 1938, and from 58 per cent of the world's total to 28 per cent.

“Total exports of cotton piece-goods declined from 7,035 million square yards in 1913 to 1,448 million in 1938, from 58 per cent of the world's total to 28 per cent.”

• cites [22] 22. This admirable short introduction to Churchill is based upon Addison's long entry on Churchill in the ODNB (2004), vol. XI, pp. 653-85.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Almost all intelligent young men of whatever political party after the First World War were active supporters of the League of Nations and attracted by disarmament.

“Almost all intelligent young men of whatever political party were active supporters of the League of Nations, and attracted by disarmament.”

• cites [3] 3. Deirdre McMahon, 'Ireland and the Empire-Commonwealth, 1900-1948', in Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. IV: Twentieth century (ed. J. M. Brown and W. R. Louis, 1999), pp. 143-6. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

India's imports from Japan rose from 18.4 per cent in 1928/9 to 47.3 per cent in 1932-3, while Britain's share declined from 75.2 per cent to 48.7 per cent.

“India's imports from Japan rose from 18.4 per cent in 1928/9 to 47.3 per cent in 1932-3, while Britain's share declined from 75.2 per cent to 48.7 per cent.”

• cites [22] 22. This admirable short introduction to Churchill is based upon Addison's long entry on Churchill in the ODNB (2004), vol. XI, pp. 653-85.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Non-Europeans were invariably seen as basically different, and this assumption generated emotional attitudes in which difference meant inferiority.

“It is difficult to refute because non-Europeans were invariably seen as basically different.This assumption generated emotional attitudes: difference meant inferiority.”

May combine two claims.

Churchill had a genuine sympathy for 'subject races' and believed in trying to 'measure the weight of the burden they bear' in being ruled by alien administrators.

“He had a genuine sympathy for 'subject races', and believed in trying to 'measure the weight of the burden they bear' in being ruled by alien administrators.36”

• cites [36] 36. H Watzman, 2000, 2001): pp. 33-50 on the Balfour Declaration. This work is both con- troversial Jewish revisionism and an epic evocation of the three communities.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Neville Chamberlain's plan as prime minister (1937-40) was to restore to Germany the former Togoland and Cameroon colonies and to create for Germany a completely new colony.

“(1937-40) to restore to Germany the former Togoland and Cameroon colonies, and in addition to create for Germany a completely new colony.”

• cites PREM 1/247Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A sense of racial difference permeated many aspects of colonial practice, explaining the general absence of inter-marriage with non-whites, the prohibition of local concubinage for district officers, the segregation of non-Europeans into separate townships, the misbehaviour of soldiers towards local populations, and the absence of African diocesan bishops in the Anglican Church between 1890 and 1

“A sense of racial difference certainly permeated many aspects of colonial practice.It explains, for example, the general absence of inter-marriage with non-whites, the prohibition (after the Crewe Circular of 1909) of local concubinage for district officers, the segregation of non-Europeans into separate townships, the misbehaviour of soldiers towards local populations, the absence of African dioc”

May combine two claims.

Chamberlain did not believe he could purchase peace and a lasting settlement by handing over the whole of Tanganyika, but would not have hesitated to do so.

“He did not believe he could purchase peace and a lasting settlement by handing over the whole of Tanganyika, but would not have hesitated for a moment to do so ('It would be of more value to them than to us').”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The most shocking but lesser known example of European high-handedness was a massive proposed re-partition of Central Africa.

“the most shocking -but lesser known -example of European high-handedness was a massive proposed re-partition of Central Africa.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Discussions about the proposed re-partition of Central Africa had been going on for a couple of years before 1938.

“The records lie in an extremely fat file innocently entitled 'Colonial policy 1938', but in fact discussions had been going on for a couple of years before that.”

May combine two claims.

Even Lord Passfield as Labour colonial secretary (1929-31) could not apply progressive Fabian principles and had to water down his White Paper pronouncements, since a common-roll franchise could not be enforced without provoking a settler rebellion in Kenya.

“Even Lord Passfield (Sidney Webb) as Labour colonial secretary (1929-31) could not apply progressive Fabian principles, and had to water down his White Paper pronouncements, since a common-roll franchise could not be enforced without provoking a settler rebellion in kenya.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

British attitudes were awash with cultural chauvinism, at least between the Indian Mutiny-Rebellion of 1857 and the collapse of Hitler's Germany.

“British attitudes were awash with cultural chauvinism, at least between the Indian Mutiny-Rebellion of 1857 and the collapse of Hitler's Germany.”

May combine two claims.

The rationale for Chamberlain's scheme was that Britain was not prepared, for strategic reasons, to give back the whole of Tanganyika, which would mean severing the air-route to South Africa and giving up relatively large economic interests.

“The rationale for this farcical and elaborate reconstruction, admitted to be 'a patchwork solution', was that Britain was not prepared, for strategic reasons, to give back the whole of Tanganyika, which would mean severing the air-route to South Africa and giving up relatively large economic interests.”

May combine two claims.

The idea of Zionism bit deep with the empire-minded political elite; many key figures were Zionists to some degree, including Joe Chamberlain, Balfour, Lloyd George, Churchill, Milner, Amery, Smuts, John Buchan, Malcolm MacDonald, William Ormsby-Gore, and Harold Wilson.

“Certainly the idea bit deep with the empire-minded political elite.Many of the key figures were Zionists to some degree, including not only Joe Chamberlain, Balfour, Lloyd George, Churchill, Milner, Amery and Smuts, but also John Buchan, Malcolm MacDonald, William Ormsby-Gore, and, in the next generation, Harold Wilson.”

May combine two claims.

The stereotype of Chinese society was essentially that it was stagnant, foolish and fatalistic, chaotic, amorphous and unmanageable.

“The stereotype of Chinese society was essentially that it was stagnant, foolish and fatalistic, chaotic, amorphous and unmanageable”

• cites [41] 41. J. R. MacDonald, Labour and the empire (1907), pp. 65, 98. 81Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

To an extraordinary extent, promiscuity, prostitution, and sodomy were depicted as central characteristics of Asian and other societies, and this was said to make them inferior and unfit for self-rule.

“To an extraordinary extent, promiscuity, prostitution, and sodomy were depicted as central characteristics of Asian and other societies, and it was this which was said to make them inferior and unfit for self-rule.”

• cites [40] 40. Charles Kingsley, Miscellanies (2 vols., 1859) vol. II, pp. 21-2;Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Arab nationalism was not regarded as an identifiable factor at all until the Arab revolt of 1936.

“Arab nationalism was not regarded as an identifiable factor at all until the Arab revolt of 1936.”

May combine two claims.

The Afrikaner-nationalist regime in South Africa after 1948 used racial classification as a basis for European domination, which is true racism.

“The difference is sharply exemplified by the Afrikaner-nationalist regime in South Africa, which after 1948, did indeed use racial classification as a basis for European domination.That is true racism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A further influential presupposition was that races must be inferior if they lacked industrial enterprise.

“A further influential presupposition was that races must be inferior if they lacked industrial enterprise.”

May combine two claims.

As first lord of the Admiralty in 1939, Churchill wrote that there must be no discrimination on grounds of race or colour and that Indians could serve in HM ships and rise to Admiral of the Fleet if qualified.

“As first lord of the Admiralty in 1939 he wrote: 'there must be no discrimination on grounds of race or colour . . .I cannot see any objections to Indians serving in HM ships where they are qualified or needed, or, if their virtues so deserve, rising to be Admiral of the Fleet.' 35”

• cites [35] 35. T. Segev, One Palestine, complete: Jews and Arabs under the British Mandate (transl.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Even Edwardian socialist progressives and humanitarian campaigners shared the notions of a pseudo-scientific racial hierarchy.

“Even Edwardian socialist progressives and humanitarian campaigners shared the notions of a pseudo-scientific racial hierarchy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In October 1902 Herzl approached Joe Chamberlain and asked if the Colonial Office would agree to a Jewish colony in the Sinai peninsula; Chamberlain preferred to offer a site on the Uasin Gishu plateau near Nairobi.

“In October 1902 Herzl approached Joe Chamberlain (secretary of state for the colonies, 1895-1903) and asked if the CO would agree to a Jewish colony in Sinai peninsula.Chamberlain, after a trip on the Uganda railway, preferred to offer a site on the Uasin Gishu plateau near Nairobi.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

During the Ethiopian crisis (1935-6), frontier changes and 'corridors for camels' were planned with scant regard for Ethiopian, Somali, or Eritrean feelings.

“Although during the Ethiopian crisis (1935-6) frontier changes and 'corridors for camels' were planned with scant regard for Ethiopian, Somali, or Eritrean feelings”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 1917 Balfour issued the Balfour Declaration, stating that His Majesty's Government viewed with favour the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people and would use their best endeavours to facilitate it, with the caveat that nothing should prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine.

“in 1917, Lloyd George's foreign secretary from 1916 to 1919, A. J. Balfour, issued a famous -and fateful -statement, which said: His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Theodor Herzl in 1896 called for a world council to discuss a homeland for the Jews, convened the first Zionist Congress at Basle in the following year, and became first president of the World Zionist Organisation.

“Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian journalist, in a pamphlet entitled Judenstaat, in 1896 called for a world council to discuss the question of a homeland for the Jews.He convened the first Zionist Congress at Basle in the following year, and became first president of the World Zionist Organisation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Churchill believed in British superiority over non-Europeans (and most Europeans) and thought the empire was a good thing.

“Of course Churchill believed in British superiority over non-Europeans (and most Europeans), and thought the empire was a good thing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Churchill was appalled by Mussolini's cynical invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.

“appalled by Mussolini's cynical invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

They allowed themselves to be unduly influenced by aspects of non-European life that should have been irrelevant to any sensible assessment of capacity, such as nudity in tropical climes, or sexual activities.

“They allowed themselves to be unduly influenced by aspects of non-European life that should have been irrelevant to any sensible assessment of capacity, such as nudity in tropical climes, or sexual activities.”

May combine two claims.

There was no legal racial separation in the British empire, but an insidious hierarchical social convention.

“There was no legal racial separation, but an insidious hierarchical social convention.29”

• cites [29] 29. W. Henderson, 'Khama, Tshekedi', ODNB (2004), vol. XXXI, pp. 507-9.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In accordance with the Balfour Declaration, the British government accepted the Palestine Mandate from the League of Nations in April 1920.

“In accordance with the Balfour Declaration, the British government accepted the Palestine Mandate from the League of Nations in April 1920”

May combine two claims.

The Devonshire declaration of 1923 said that the object of the trust was the protection and advancement of the native races, and that primarily Kenya was an African country and the interests of the African natives must be paramount.

“the Devonshire declaration of 1923, which said that the object of the trust was 'the protection and advancement of the native races': 'primarily Kenya is an African country and . . . the interests of the African natives must be paramount'”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The wording of the Balfour Declaration was almost entirely derived from Weizmann, though he had wanted 'the National Home of the Jews'.

“The wording was almost entirely derived from Weizmann, though he had wanted 'the National Home of the Jews'.”

May combine two claims.

Curzon allowed himself to be overruled, and other objectors were out-manoeuvred by those putting the strategic arguments.

“But Curzon allowed himself to be overruled, and, like other objectors, out-manoeuvred by those putting the strategic arguments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Colonial secretary W. G. Ormsby-Gore refused to include Sierra Leone or the Gambia in the scheme because doing so would lead to serious risings.

“Colonial secretary W. G. Ormsby-Gore (1936-8) also refused to toss in Sierra Leone or the Gambia, because this would lead to serious risings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Africans were regarded as indolent, lacking in initiative, thrift, and honesty.

“Africans were regarded as indolent, lacking in initiative, thrift, and honesty.”

• cites [42] 42. `Friedman, The question of Palestine, pp. 17-18. 82 PD, Commons vol. 156, cc. 334-5, 4 July 1922.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Churchill believed a new Palestine would be created by the Jews, bringing prosperity and a higher economic and social life to all, and that the Arabs should see them as friends and helpers, not as expellers and expropriators.

“A new Palestine would be created by the Jews, which would bring prosperity and 'a higher economic and social life to all', a great experiment, in conformity with the empire's 'great estates' policy.The Arabs, insisted Churchill, 'should see them as their friends and helpers, not as expellers and expropriators'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By 1943 Churchill thought satellite settlements in Eritrea and Tripolitania as Jewish colonies affiliated to the National Home in Palestine a possibility.

“By 1943 Churchill thought this a possibility, and Professor Arnold Toynbee was working out possible plans.86”

• cites [86] 86. R. Hyam, 'The study of imperial and Commonwealth history at Cambridge, 1881-1981: founding fathers and pioneer research students', JICH, vol. 29 (2001), pp. 76-9. For sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

To Lord Curzon as viceroy from 1898 to 1905, the Indian National Congress was 'an unclean thing', absurdly unrepresentative of the people, led by a 'microscopic minority'.

“To Lord Curzon as viceroy from 1898 to 1905, the Indian National Congress was 'an unclean thing', absurdly unrepresentative of the people, led by a 'microscopic minority'.102”

• cites [102] 102. S. Roskill, Hankey: man of secrets, vol. III: 1931-1963 (1974), pp. 270-82. 155Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Balfour Declaration did not mean that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded in Palestine.

“The Balfour Declaration did not mean 'that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded in Palestine'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1952 Kwame Nkrumah said they had India, Ceylon and Burma to draw inspiration from.

“In 1952 Kwame Nkrumah, graduate of American universities, founder of the Convention People's Party in the Gold Coast, said they had 'India, Ceylon and Burma to draw inspiration from'.”

• cites [97] 97. D. Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald (1977), pp. 748-95, and in ODNB, vol. XXXV, pp. 268-82; Lord Strang, Home and abroad (1956), pp. 65, 153-4.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Labour Party remained opposed to disarmament until 1937.

“The Party remained opposed to disarmament until 1937.”

May combine two claims.

Viscount Goschen dismissed Irish Home Rule agitation as a fraud, 'a bastard nationalism', setting the precedent for tackling early nationalist movements by denying their validity.

“Viscount Goschen (chancellor of the Exchequer, 1886-92) 100 had dismissed the Irish Home Rule agitation as a fraud, 'a bastard nationalism', thus setting the precedent for tackling early nationalist movements -not least in India -101 simply by denying their validity.”

• cites [100] 100. L. R. Pratt, East of Malta,West of Suez: Britain's Mediterranean crisis, 1936-1939 (1979);Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [101] 101. R. Quartararo, 'Imperial defence in the Mediterranean, 1935', Historical Journal, vol. 20 (1977), pp. 185-220.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

By 1938 the government had lost control of large areas of Palestine, and order was only restored by drastic counter-terrorist measures.

“By 1938 the government had lost control of large areas of the country, and order was only restored by drastic counter-terrorist measures.”

May combine two claims.

The British empire reached its greatest extent yet after the First World War, and thereafter suffered problems of acute strategic over-extension.

“The British empire reached its greatest extent yet after the First World War, and thereafter suffered problems of acute strategic over-extension.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In 1935, the foreign secretary Sir Samuel Hoare was dismissed by a supine Cabinet in order to placate a protesting public opinion, when it was realised that the government was trying to secure peace with Italy by the dismemberment of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), which Mussolini had invaded.

“In an unprecedented episode in 1935, the foreign secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, was dismissed by a supine Cabinet in order to placate a protesting public opinion, when it was realised that the government was trying to secure peace with Italy by the dismemberment of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), which Mussolini had invaded.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

During the suppression of the Arab revolt, villages were razed to the ground as collective punishment, 2,000 houses were destroyed, and there were countless floggings.

“Villages were razed to the ground as collective punishment, 2,000 houses were destroyed, and there were countless floggings.”

May combine two claims.

The Chiefs of Staff decided that their basic aim was the security of imperial communications throughout the world, followed in order of priority by the security of the UK against Germany, the security of the empire in the Far East against Japan, the security of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and finally the security of India against Russia.

“In trying to sort out the priorities, the Chiefs of Staff decided that their basic aim was the security of imperial communications throughout the world, and that this was followed in order of priority by the security of the UK against Germany, the security of the empire in the Far East against Japan, the security of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and finally the security of India against R”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

There were four foreign secretaries in the 1930s, all of them irresolute.

“There were four foreign secretaries in the 1930s, all of them irresolute.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After the Statute of Westminster, governors-general would no longer act in any way as the agent of the UK government.

“Governors-general would no longer act in any way as the agent of the UK government.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

From 1936 the Arab revolt gathered momentum, as strikes turned into sabotage.

“From 1936 the Arab revolt gathered momentum, as strikes turned into sabotage.”

May combine two claims.

By 1944 the Coalition government was moving towards the partition of Palestine as a solution, a reversion to the abortive partition policy proposed by Peel and the CO in 1937.

“By 1944 the Coalition government was moving towards the partition of Palestine as a solution, that is to say, a reversion to the abortive partition policy already proposed by Viscount Peel and the CO in 1937.”

May combine two claims.

Each dominion remained the sole judge of the nature and extent of its co-operation with Britain, though in practice some dependence in diplomacy and defence remained until the Second World War.

“Each would remain the sole judge of the nature and extent of its co-operation with Britain, though in practice some dependence in diplomacy and defence remained until the Second World War.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Indian nationalism developed strong religious and cultural elements, most evident in Gandhi's use of Hindu spiritual rhetoric, symbols, and practices.

“Indian nationalism developed strong religious and cultural elements, most evident in Gandhi's use of Hindu spiritual rhetoric, symbols, and practices.”

May combine two claims.

Under the Statute of Westminster, the British parliament could not legislate on behalf of a dominion except with its consent, and no law passed in the dominions could be invalidated on the grounds of repugnance to English law.

“Henceforth the British parliament could not legislate on behalf of a dominion (except with its consent), and no law passed in the dominions could be invalidated on the grounds of repugnance to English law”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Between August and October 1938, thirty death sentences were pronounced, six of which were commuted.

“Between August and October 1938, thirty death sentences were pronounced (six were commuted).”

May combine two claims.

Despite their recognition that the number of enemies must be reduced, the Chiefs of Staff persisted in the strategy of building a Singapore naval base, provoking Japan.

“Despite their recognition that the number of enemies must be reduced, the Chiefs of Staff persisted in the strategy of building a Singapore naval base, provoking to Japan.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Churchill believed the Arabs were proving bad allies and that Britain owed them nothing.

“The Arabs were, he believed, proving bad allies (unlike in the First World War), and Britain owed them nothing.92”

• cites [92] 92. R. Hyam, 'The primacy of geopolitics: the dynamics of British imperial policy, 1763-1963', JICH, vol. 27 (1999), pp. 42-5. 143 Howard, The continental commitment, pp. 11 and 75. Sir T. Sanderson quoted from G. P. Gooch and H. Temperley, eds., British documents on the origin of the War, 1898-1914, vol. III, p. 430 (23 February 1907). 144Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To Cromer, Egypt was not and never could be a nation; it was just a 'fortuitous concourse of international atoms'.

“To Cromer, Egypt was not and never could be a nation -it was just a 'fortuitous concourse of international atoms'.”

May combine two claims.

The next imperial conference in 1930 agreed that legislation should give effect to the Balfour formula, and the Statute of Westminster was enacted in 1931.

“However, the next imperial conference in 1930 agreed that legislation should give effect to the formula, and the Statute of Westminster was enacted in 1931.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The war brought portentous changes to the international scene, and tensions between Britain and the United States.

“The war also brought portentous changes to the international scene, and tensions between Britain and the United States.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Some 400,000 African soldiers were mobilised by Britain alone, and by the end of their service 70 per cent of them were literate.

“Some 400,000 African soldiers were mobilised by Britain alone, and by the end of their service 70 per cent of them were literate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Malcolm MacDonald was appointed secretary of state for the colonies by Neville Chamberlain in May 1938.

“Acquiring a reputation for 'quiet efficiency', MacDonald was appointed as secretary of state for the colonies by Neville Chamberlain in May 1938.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Under the terms of the Washington Treaty (1922), for the first time the Royal Navy had mere parity with rivals, not superiority, and its size was determined by international treaty rather than by assessment of Britain's own strategic needs.

“Under the terms of the Washington Treaty (1922), for the first time the Royal Navy had mere parity with rivals, not superiority, and its size was determined by international treaty rather than by assessment of Britain's own strategic needs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the 1940s, new universities were established in Legon, Ibadan, Makerere, Khartoum, and the West Indies, which it was hoped would produce more professional groups who could run their countries.

“In the 1940s, new universities were established in Legon, Ibadan, Makerere, Khartoum, and the West Indies, which it was hoped would produce more professional groups who could run their countries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The move towards settler domination in Kenya was much speeded up by the war.

“The move towards settler domination had been much speeded up by the war.”

May combine two claims.

The Singapore naval base project began in 1921 and cost £25 million.

“The project began in 1921.It cost £25 million.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Japanese military abilities were seriously underestimated by many others besides Churchill.

“Japanese military abilities were seriously underestimated by many others besides Churchill.”

May combine two claims.

The idea was that Singapore would defend itself for the time it was estimated it would take the fleet to get there; the estimate got progressively longer, from 42 days to 90 days (June 1939) to at least 180 days (September 1939).

“The idea was that it would defend itself for the time it was estimated it would take the fleet to get there.The estimate got progressively longer, from 42 days to 90 days (June 1939) to at least 180 days (September 1939).167”

• cites [167]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In 1921 came the termination of the Japanese alliance, followed by the Washington Naval Conference (1922) which marked the surrender of British supremacy at sea.

“In 1921 came the termination of the Japanese alliance, followed by the Washington Naval Conference (1922) which marked the surrender of British supremacy at sea.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

'Partnership' became the new slogan, though it was uncertain precisely what it involved.

“'Partnership' became the new slogan, though it was uncertain precisely what it involved.”

• cites [199]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By a tight definition restricting racism to the abnormal systematisation of racial prejudice into institutionalised discrimination or exploitation, certain states are undoubtedly racist by deliberate intent: the United States before civil rights, Australia under White Australia, South Africa under apartheid, Nazi Germany, and Rhodesia between 1965 and 1979.

“By this tight definition it is clear that certain states are undoubtedly 'racist' by deliberate intent: the United States before the victory of civil rights, Australia in the days of 'White Australia' immigration policy, South Africa in the era of apartheid, Nazi Germany, Rhodesia between 1965 and 1979.”

May combine two claims.

Both Du Bois and Bryce were wrong that race was the critical problem of the twentieth century.

“Both Du Bois and Bryce were wrong.Race was not the critical problem of the twentieth century, even if it was an underlying reality.”

• cites [23] 23. Edna Bradlow, 'The evolution of "trusteeship" in Kenya', South African Historical Journal, vol. 4 (1972), pp. 64-80; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [24] 24. J. G. Kamoche, Imperial trusteeship and political evolution in Kenya, 1923-1963: a study of official views and the road to decolonisation (Washington, 1981);Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [25] 25. R. M. Maxon, The struggle for Kenya: the loss and reassertion of imperial initative, 1912-1923 (1993).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The defining problem of the twentieth century for Europeans was totalitarian aggression, the 'seventy-five years' war' from 1914 to 1989.

“The defining problem of the twentieth century for Europeans, the chief preoccupation, which gives it an over-arching historical framework, was totalitarian aggression, the 'seventy-five years' war' from 1914 to 1989 when the Berlin Wall fell.”

• cites [25] 25. R. M. Maxon, The struggle for Kenya: the loss and reassertion of imperial initative, 1912-1923 (1993).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The immediate postwar years were near-nightmares for those in charge of the empire.

“If the immediate postwar years were ones of painful adjustment for individuals, they were near-nightmares for those in charge of the empire.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many of the 37,000 British officers killed in the First World War would have gone into politics and imperial administration.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Almost all of the survivors of the First World War who entered public life were marked by moral and psychological shock, haunted by memories, and guilty in their survival.

May combine two claims.

The British empire as a whole can only dubiously be called racist, and to the extent that it was, not by deliberate aim.

“the British empire as a whole can only dubiously be called racist, and to the extent that it was, not by deliberate aim.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The aim of racist states is ethnic survival, since they feel threatened by an alien 'other'.

“By contrast the aim of racist states is ethnic survival, since they feel threatened by an alien 'other'.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The first and long-term reason for the British government's patronage of Zionism was a geopolitical concept: Zionism provided a means of acquiring informal control without annexation and realising a strategic objective without offending the USA.

“This geopolitical concept was, then, the first and long-term reason for the patronage of Zionism by the British government.Zionism provided a means of acquiring informal control without annexation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Unlike almost all other imperial problems, the Palestine problem did not arise naturally or ineluctably out of the circumstances of imperial power but was actually created, a gratuitous piece of self-inflicted harm.

“Unlike almost all other problems, it was not one which arose naturally or ineluctably out of the circumstances of, or challenges to, imperial power, but was actually created, a gratuitous piece of self-inflicted harm, if you like.”

May combine two claims.

The Union of South Africa was an expansionist state and pressed its claims to the High Commission Territories; its increasingly harsh native policies made it hard to square acquiescence in South African ambitions with British protection of African interests.

“The Union of South Africa was an expansionist state and pressed its claims.Its increasingly harsh native policies made it hard to square any acquiescence in South African ambitions with the British protection of African interests.”

May combine two claims.

For Lloyd George, the attraction of the Palestine project was as a pre-emptive measure against the French, who wanted to be a major power in the Middle East; Palestine would be a buffer between the Suez Canal and French Syria to the north.

“For prime minister Lloyd George, the attraction of the Palestine project was as a pre-emptive measure against the French, who wanted to be a major power in the Middle East.”

• Also stated in: § 2. Zionism · hedged

  “Palestine would be a buffer between the Suez Canal and French Syria to the north.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Palestine Mandate saddled Britain with one of the most difficult problems it ever had to face, and no British politician would find a solution.

“thus saddling themselves with one of the most difficult problems Britain ever had to face, and to which no British politician would find a solution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The British government was largely oblivious to the terrible nature of the provocation it was giving to the Muslim world.

“The British government was largely oblivious to the terrible nature of the provocation it was giving to the Muslim world.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Patronage of Zionism reflected non-comprehension and contempt for nationalist movements which were general in the 1920s.

“Patronage of Zionism reflected non-comprehension and contempt for nationalist movements which were general in the 1920s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In the 1930s Europeans still tended to think they could do what they liked with Africa.

“In the 1930s Europeans still tended to think they could do what they liked with Africa.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Balfour's 1919 statement is a shocking illustration of the extent and depth of the West's complacency in the early twentieth century about the supposedly inevitable decline of Islam and of the West's contempt for Muslim interests.

“It would be hard to find a more shocking illustration of the extent and depth of the West's complacency in the early twentieth century about the supposedly inevitable decline of Islam, of the West's contempt for Muslim interests -its backing of Zionism 'right or wrong' -than Balfour's statement here.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Zionism was a creed that set out its own national solution to the 'problem' of the Jewish diaspora and saw itself as the national liberation movement of the Jewish people; it was a pure example of 'invented tradition', with no roots in existing Jewish tradition.

“Zionism was a creed which set out its own national solution to the 'problem' of the Jewish diaspora.It saw itself, in modern parlance, as the national liberation movement of the Jewish people.It was in fact a pure example of 'invented tradition', with no roots in existing Jewish tradition, of which it was a drastic rejection.”

May combine two claims.

Categorising people by race or ethnic origin tended to harden divisions and make them seem more dependent on colonial rule, but this was not its purpose.

“Categorising people by race or ethnic origin tended to harden divisions and make them seem more dependent on colonial rule, but it is not the case that this was its purpose.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Churchill's 1908 statement about a Jewish state was probably more a romantic Churchillian rhetorical flourish than a serious political commitment.

“This was probably more a romantic Churchillian rhetorical flourish than a serious political commitment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Despite low-grade racial prejudice and some high-handed politics, the British empire had a definite countervailing doctrine of trusteeship: African territories were held in trust and the interests of the ward should be carefully considered.

“Despite low-grade racial prejudice and some high-handed politics, the empire had a definite countervailing doctrine of trusteeship -the idea that African territories were held in trust, and the interests of the ward should be carefully considered.”

May combine two claims.

Race was a useful supporting mechanism for the imperial structure, or justification for the cosmoplastic project.

“The most that can be said is that race was a useful supporting mechanism for the imperial structure, or justification for the cosmoplastic (world-moulding) project.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Meeting non-Europeans in an imperial context could sometimes make people less contemptuous.

“Moreover, meeting non-Europeans in an imperial context could sometimes make people less contemptuous.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Post-1918 British cosmologies inherited a late-Victorian racial stereotyping which was harsher than anything which had preceded it.

“Post-1918 British cosmologies inherited a late-Victorian racial stereotyping which was harsher than anything which had preceded it.”

May combine two claims.

The power of world Jewry was vastly over-estimated; it was not true that Jewish minorities were all of the same mind or coherently linked, let alone active supporters of Zionism.

“The power of world Jewry was, however, vastly over-estimated.It simply was not true that Jewish minorities were all of the same mind or coherently linked, let alone active supporters of Zionism.”

May combine two claims.

Churchill was not alone in his careless private racial attitudes; prejudice was typical of the governing elite of his generation.

“Churchill was not alone in his careless private racial attitudes.Prejudice was typical of the governing elite of his generation.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Zionism was underpinned by deep attitudes within the British ruling elite, including the Victorian belief in the immorality of the economic status quo and the economic justification for the acquisition of territory.

“In other ways, too, Zionism was underpinned by deep attitudes within the British ruling elite.The Victorian belief in 'the immorality of the economic status quo' was well to the fore.”

May combine two claims.

Fabian theorists made a contribution to ethical imperial policy, though it is important not to exaggerate it.

“Fabian theorists made their contribution, though it is important not to exaggerate it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Fear was always at the bottom of settler racial prejudice, just as it was for racist states.

“Fear was always at the bottom of settler racial prejudice, just as it was for racist states.”

May combine two claims.

Civil servants in the Colonial and Dominions Offices stood firm on trusteeship and staved off any concession without provoking a large-scale row with the South African government; this was a victory for trusteeship that eventually made possible the emergence of three independent African states in the 1960s.

“Civil servants in the Colonial and Dominions Offices stood firm on trusteeship, and managed to stave off any concession without provoking a large-scale row with the South African government.It was a victory for trusteeship which eventually made possible the emergence of three independent African states in the 1960s.”

May combine two claims.

The fundamentals of an ethical imperial policy were laid out by the Liberal governments before the First World War, and progressive attitudes were self-generating within the Colonial Office in the 1930s.

“The fundamentals of an ethical policy were laid out by the Liberal governments before the First World War, 48 and progressive attitudes were self-generating within the Colonial Office in the 1930s.”

May combine two claims.

Churchill's record is good; he was 'racially prejudiced' perhaps, but certainly not a 'malignant racist'.

“But whether dictated from the head or the heart, Churchill's record is good.'Racially prejudiced' perhaps, but certainly not a 'malignant racist'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Support for a Jewish homeland was in many ways a specifically Edwardian emotion.

“In many ways support for a Jewish homeland was a specifically Edwardian emotion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The governing elite of Churchill's generation had little real knowledge and less understanding of human nature and human societies.

“Why was this?In a word, they had little real knowledge and less understanding.”

May combine two claims.

Chamberlain's African reconstruction scheme was fundamentally unrealistic and failed because Hitler rejected it, being unwilling to enter into the essential quid pro quo of a general settlement in Europe.

“It was fundamentally unrealistic.It failed not because of ethical doubts but simply because Hitler rejected it, being unwilling to enter into the essential quid pro quo, a general settlement in Europe, including co-operation over Austria and Czechoslovakia.”

• cites PREM 1/247Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It was widely felt that the British could have it both ways: Jewish and Arab interests not only should but could be reconciled.

“It was widely felt that the British could have it both ways.Jewish and Arab interests not only should but could be reconciled.”

May combine two claims.

Zionism was vaguely supported by many Britons, and the government did not renege on its promise after the war, so the policy must have touched roots beyond simple wartime short-term expediency.

“Nevertheless, Zionism was vaguely supported by many Britons, and the government did not renege on its promise after the war was over, so the policy must have touched roots beyond simple wartime short-term expediency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Racism cannot be blamed on the British empire; it has more to do with antecedent class attitudes and snobberies exported from Britain itself.

“Racism certainly cannot be blamed on empire.It has more to do with antecedent class attitudes and snobberies exported from Britain itself.”

May combine two claims.

Nkrumah's 'positive action' campaign was a continuation of Gandhi's non-violent methods, based on strikes and boycotts, with more disciplined and effectual political activity, manipulating newspaper and educational campaigns.

“His 'positive action' campaign was a continuation of Gandhi's non-violent methods, based on strikes and boycotts, with a more disciplined and effectual political activity, manipulating newspaper and educational campaigns.”

• cites [97] 97. D. Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald (1977), pp. 748-95, and in ODNB, vol. XXXV, pp. 268-82; Lord Strang, Home and abroad (1956), pp. 65, 153-4.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The White Paper policy was not overthrown; the Foreign Office saw to that.

“But the White Paper policy was not overthrown.The Foreign Office saw to that.94”

• cites [94] 94. See also P. M. Kennedy, The realities behind diplomacy: background influences on British external policy, 1865-1980 (1981), pp. 285-312. 149Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The trend towards partition probably resulted from growing American interest and Jewish terrorism, and from the administrative difficulty of implementing the White Paper in wartime conditions; and perhaps it was a means of sustaining Weizmann at the head of the Zionist movement.

“Probably the trend towards partition resulted from growing American interest and Jewish terrorism, and from the administrative difficulty of implementing the White Paper in wartime conditions; and perhaps it was a means of sustaining old-fashioned and co-operative Weizmann at the head of the Zionist movement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

'Non-co-operation' was a skilful tactic to employ against the British.

“'Non-co-operation' was a skilful tactic to employ against the British.”

May combine two claims.

Appeasement had its roots in the economic depression, the financial anxieties which worried Chamberlain, and in geopolitical evaluations and constraints.

“Appeasement had its roots in the economic depression, the financial anxieties which so worried Chamberlain, and in geopolitical evaluations and constraints.”

May combine two claims.

Zionism disrupted the imperial policy of understanding with the Arab world and thus imperilled imperial communications in the Middle East and the flow of oil.

“Zionism disrupted this, and thus imperilled imperial communications in the Middle East and the flow of oil.90”

• cites [90] 90. L. S. Amery, My political life, vol. II; War and peace, 1914-1929 (1953), p. 338. 137 Louis, 'In the name of God, go!', pp. 26 and 69 n 99. 138 PD, Commons vol. 153, cc 575-9, 26 April 1922. 141 Geoffrey Parker, Western geopolitical thought in the twentieth century (1985), p. 175;Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Officially a Jewish state was not envisaged by British policy, but unofficially none could say; there was really no unequivocally clear policy before 1939.

“Officially a Jewish state was not envisaged by British policy, but unofficially none could say.There was really no unequivocally clear policy before 1939.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Generally, the idealists looked to economic regeneration in the empire, sending out capital and labour, in order to stimulate the British share of the empire market.

“Generally, the idealists looked to economic regeneration in the empire, sending out capital and labour, in order to stimulate the British share of the empire market.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

If Singapore fell, Australia, New Zealand, Borneo, Malaya, Burma, and India would all be at risk; the whole Indian Ocean would be at the mercy of Japan; and if Japan got Indonesian oil, and Malayan tin, iron, and rubber, the British empire might well be doomed.

“If Singapore fell, Australia, New Zealand, Borneo, Malaya, Burma, and India would all be at risk; the whole Indian Ocean would be at the mercy of Japan; and if Japan got hold of Indonesian oil, and Malayan tin, iron, and rubber, the British empire might well be doomed.”

May combine two claims.

Appeasement rested in part on the need to defend an over-extended exhausted empire which could not in the final analysis be properly defended, and certainly not against three enemies so geographically spread apart as Germany and Japan, with fascist Italy having a stranglehold on the vital communications-link between the two theatres of war.

“It is well understood today that appeasement rested in part on the need to defend an over-extended exhausted empire which could not in the final analysis be properly defended, and certainly not against three enemies so geographically spread apart as Germany and Japan, with fascist Italy having a stranglehold on the vital communications-link between the two theatres of war.”

• cites [154]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The international system is essentially competitive, with states locked into an almost Darwinian struggle.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Zionism reflects the obsession of the interwar generation with declarations, definitions, legalistic pronouncements, and paper solutions.

“Zionism also reflects the obsession of the interwar generation with declarations, definitions, legalistic pronouncements, paper solutions -what George Orwell called the 'time of labels, slogans and evasions' -and what a permanent under-secretary at the Foreign Office, Sir Robert Vansittart, recalled as a time when 'we paddled in a puree of words and hoped to catch a formula'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This malaise led to a lack of clear-sighted policy, while an obsessive governmental anxiety about imperial weakness went hand-in-hand with a penchant for isolationist inaction and undue reliance on a clamorous but ill-informed public opinion consumed by an emotional surge of moralising idealism.

“This malaise led to a lack of clear-sighted policy, while an obsessive governmental anxiety about imperial weakness went hand-in-hand with a penchant for isolationist inaction and undue reliance on a clamorous but ill-informed public opinion consumed by an emotional surge of moralising idealism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Peace in Palestine was essential for three reasons: to release troops tied up to defend the Suez Canal in war; to bring Indian reinforcements to Egypt if Italy blocked the Red Sea exit of the Canal; and to secure important oil interests.

“Peace in Palestine was essential for three reasons: to release troops tied up to defend the Suez Canal in war; to bring Indian reinforcements to Egypt if Italy blocked the Red Sea exit of the Canal in war, reinforcements which would have to come overland via the Persian Gulf and Palestine on a guaranteed route; and to secure, in the long run, the important oil interests.”

May combine two claims.

The White Paper showed a fundamental recognition that an increasingly anti-British brand of Arab nationalism was growing up, and aimed to prevent its becoming contagious.

“Thus the White Paper showed a fundamental recognition that there was growing up an increasingly anti-British brand of Arab nationalism, and aimed to prevent its becoming contagious.”

May combine two claims.

The result of this dysfunctional foreign and defence policy was that in September 1939 Britain entered war against Germany in almost uniquely unfavourable circumstances, worse prepared than at any time in the last two hundred years.

“The result of this dysfunctional foreign and defence policy was that in September 1939 Britain entered war against Germany in almost uniquely unfavourable circumstances, worse prepared than at any time in the last two hundred years.150”

• cites [150] 150. Sylvia Leith-Ross, Stepping-stones: memoirs of colonial Nigeria, 1907-1960 (ed.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There was an enormous gap between the vision of the Commonwealth idealists and their achievement.

“There was an enormous gap between vision and achievement.”

May combine two claims.

African nationalism drew inspiration from Indian nationalism in general and Gandhian principles in particular, as well as from Caribbean propagandists for 'negro improvement' like Marcus Garvey.

“African nationalism drew inspiration from Indian nationalism in general and Gandhian principles in particular, as well as from the Caribbean propagandists for 'negro improvement' like Marcus Garvey.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For nearly ten years from 1929 the country scarcely had any foreign policy worth the name, as more and more a vague reliance was placed on the League of Nations.

“For nearly ten years from 1929 the country scarcely had any foreign policy worth the name, as more and more a vague reliance was placed on the League of Nations.”

May combine two claims.

The Arab revolt of 1936 was an expression of disgust for British policy perceived as pro-Zionist, and a protest against the levels of Jewish immigration and the threat of partition.

“The Arab revolt of 1936 was an expression of disgust for British policy perceived as pro-Zionist, and a protest against the levels of Jewish immigration, and the threat of partition, which now seemed to be the favoured solution of an inquiry headed by Lord Peel.”

May combine two claims.

The White Paper of 1939 marked a decisive shift to greater sympathy with the Arab predicament and growing disillusionment about the Mandate.

“And just such a dramatic change of evaluation about Palestine was expressed in the White Paper of 1939, marking a decisive shift to a greater sympathy with the Arab predicament, and in the context of growing disillusionment about the Mandate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Gandhi acquired an awesome reputation for saintliness, but he was also an astute politician.

“Gandhi acquired an awesome reputation for saintliness, but he was also an astute politician.”

May combine two claims.

Foreign Office officials pointed out that Churchill had missed the point: the question was not whether Britain owed a debt of gratitude but whether Britain had important interests centring in the Arab world, especially oil.

“But as the Foreign Office officials pointed out, Churchill had missed the point: The question is . . .not whether we owe [sympathy to the sufferings of the Jews, or the] Arabs a debt of gratitude, but whether we have important interests centring in the Arab world.The answer must be emphatically that we have; and in particular our oil interests.93”

• cites [93] 93. P. M. Kennedy, 'Strategy versus finance in twentieth-century Great Britain', International History Review, vol. 3 (1981), pp. 44-61, repr. in Strategy and diplomacy, 1870-1945: eight studies, ch. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Depression left Britain weak and demoralised, and the ruling elite half-paralysed.

“The Depression left Britain weak and demoralised, and the ruling elite half-paralysed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The British technique for dealing with nationalism was first worked out in Ireland, applied to India, carried to Egypt by Lord Cromer, and thence on to Africa.

“The British technique for dealing with nationalism was first worked out in Ireland, applied to India, carried to Egypt by Lord Cromer (administrator, 1883-1907), and thence on to Africa.”

May combine two claims.

The effect was that Britain lost a Far Eastern ally (and the possibility of exercising some restraining influence over Japanese expansion) without gaining any effective American support.

“The effect was that Britain lost a Far Eastern ally (and the possibility of exercising some restraining influence over Japanese expansion) without gaining any effective American support.”

• cites [163]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Hitler made co-existence impossible and forced on the war.

“The truth is that Hitler made co-existence impossible and forced on the war.”

May combine two claims.

MacDonald used the device of a royal commission in the West Indies as a lever to open the tightfisted Treasury's coffers, and the ploy was successful.

“Rather cleverly, he used the device of a royal commission in the West Indies as a lever to open the tightfisted Treasury's coffers, for they would have to be impressed by such a high-level report.The ploy was successful.”

May combine two claims.

Chamberlain was right that the war would wreck the empire, but Churchill was even more right in seeing that the empire could not survive as part of a German-dominated world.

“Chamberlain was right that the war would wreck the empire -but Churchill was even more right in seeing that the empire could not survive as part of a German-dominated world.156”

• cites [156]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There was a serious and rapid decline in relations between Britain and Australia, leading ultimately to the ANZUS pact of 1952 from which Britain was excluded.

“There was a serious and rapid decline in relations between Britain and Australia, leading ultimately to the ANZUS pact of 1952 from which Britain was excluded.176”

• cites [176]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As to the effect on India, the nationalist movement received a boost.

“As to the effect on India, the nationalist movement received a boost.”

May combine two claims.

MacDonald was determined to inaugurate a more active policy of colonial development, alerted to the potential salience of colonial questions by the plans for a deal with Germany and by major strikes and protests in the West Indies from the middle of 1937, looked upon askance by the Americans.

“MacDonald was determined to inaugurate a more active policy of colonial development, alerted to the potential salience of colonial questions by the plans for a deal with Germany (see above, pp.43-5) and by major strikes and protests in the West Indies from the middle of 1937, looked upon askance by the Americans.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The British in Malaya faced a resourceful enemy.

“But it also has to be said that the British in Malaya were unlucky, and faced with a resourceful enemy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The demand for a 'seething of thought' encouraged officials to clarify their ideas.

“The demand for a 'seething of thought' certainly encouraged officials to clarify their ideas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese were brilliant risk-takers.

“The Japanese by contrast were lucky, and brilliant risk-takers.”

May combine two claims.

The Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 was quite different in its motivation from the Colonial Development Act of 1929, which was a neo-mercantilist measure primarily aimed at stimulating British exports for British economic benefit.

“Whereas the Colonial Development Act of 1929 was a neo-mercantilist measure primarily aimed at stimulating British exports for British economic benefit, the Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 was quite different in its motivation.”

• cites [186]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese were lucky.

“The Japanese by contrast were lucky, and brilliant risk-takers.”

May combine two claims.

Although war was a catalyst, the 'new direction' was in origin not a response to war or even to the Moyne report on the West Indies; MacDonald had taken the initiative in advance of both.

“Although it is true that war was a catalyst, the 'new direction' was in origin not a response to war or even to the Moyne report on the West Indies.MacDonald had taken the initiative in advance of both.”

• cites [190]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese advance lasted fifty-five days.

“They came with astonishing speed in an epic advance of fifty-five days, hurtling down the Malay peninsula at the rate of twenty miles a day, cycling on good British roads, wearing shorts and plimsolls, peddling like mad, fighting all the way, repairing 250 bridges.173”

• cites [173]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although coherent and plausible at first, the Singapore strategy became increasingly obsolete and unviable, partly because it depended on peace in Europe and free movement through the Mediterranean, and partly because the development of air-power upset all calculations.

“Although coherent and plausible at first, it became increasingly obsolete and unviable as a strategy, partly because it depended as an essential precondition on peace in Europe and on free movement through the Mediterranean, and partly because the development of air-power upset all calculations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Full administrative control was never properly re-established after the war, which provided the conditions for the emergence of the Chinese communist insurrection of 1948.

“Full administrative control was never properly re-established after the war, which provided the conditions for the emergence of the Chinese communist insurrection of 1948.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Naziism had to be treated as the prior enemy to communism, and therefore a cautious alliance with the Soviet Union had to be adopted in order to defeat Hitler, costly and embarrassing though this was.

“As to the longer-term geopolitical conflict known as the cold war, it is presumably the case that Naziism had to be treated as the prior enemy to communism, and therefore a cautious alliance with the Soviet Union had to be adopted in order to defeat Hitler, costly and embarrassing though this was.159”

• cites [159]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese were confirmed in their belief that the British were descended from monkeys.

“If the British were disabused of their belief that the Japanese were myopic midgets, the Japanese were confirmed in their belief that the British were indeed, as Darwin said, descended from monkeys, but they were descended from gods.”

• cites [174]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Second World War had a profound impact in Africa, setting in motion new economic, social, and political forces and changing expectations and the whole milieu.

“This is not to say that the Second World War did not have a profound impact in Africa.New economic, social, and political forces were set in motion.Expectations changed and the whole milieu was different.”

May combine two claims.

For all practical purposes Canada's Mr Meighen exercised a veto on the renewal of the Japanese alliance, while the Americans made abrogation a condition for a naval agreement which was meant to control the 'arms race' and end naval rivalry.

“For all practical purposes Canada's Mr Meighen exercised a veto on the renewal of the Japanese alliance, while the Americans made abrogation a condition for a naval agreement which was meant to control the 'arms race' and end naval rivalry.”

• cites [163]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese were confirmed in their belief that they were descended from gods.

“If the British were disabused of their belief that the Japanese were myopic midgets, the Japanese were confirmed in their belief that the British were indeed, as Darwin said, descended from monkeys, but they were descended from gods.”

• cites [174]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

As a result of the ending of the Japanese alliance and the Washington Naval Conference, and the problems which followed from them, Britain had neither alignment with Japan nor a navy strong enough to defend its imperial interests against Japan.

“As a result of the ending of the Japanese alliance and the Washington Naval Conference, and the problems which followed from them, Britain had neither alignment with Japan nor a navy strong enough to defend its imperial interests against the Land of Rising Sun.165”

• cites [165]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese repaired 250 bridges during the advance.

“They came with astonishing speed in an epic advance of fifty-five days, hurtling down the Malay peninsula at the rate of twenty miles a day, cycling on good British roads, wearing shorts and plimsolls, peddling like mad, fighting all the way, repairing 250 bridges.173”

• cites [173]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By the thirties the Singapore base was essentially a bogus policy, a symbol of Britain's unrealisable commitment to protect Australia and New Zealand from Japanese attack, as a cardinal link in the Commonwealth geopolitical structure.

“By the thirties it was essentially a bogus policy, a symbol of Britain's (unrealisable) commitment to protect Australia and New Zealand from Japanese attack, as a cardinal link in the Commonwealth geopolitical structure.”

May combine two claims.

MacDonald's 'seething of thought' laid the foundations during the war for fundamental changes in British policy in Africa and the Caribbean, tackling economic stagnation, building up 'moral prestige', questioning hitherto sacrosanct doctrines of minimal government interference, colonial self-sufficiency in finance, and the almost ubiquitous system of Indirect Rule.

“His 'seething of thought' laid the foundations during the war for fundamental changes in British policy in Africa and the Caribbean, tackling economic stagnation, building up 'moral prestige', questioning hitherto sacrosanct doctrines of minimal government interference, colonial self-sufficiency in finance, and the almost ubiquitous system of Indirect Rule.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The crucial impetus for university policy for British Africa came from Earl De La Warr's report in September 1937, the first published exposition of university policy for British Africa, recommending a synthesis of both African and European cultural elements.

“The crucial impetus came from Earl De La Warr's report in September 1937, the first published exposition of university policy for British Africa, recommending a synthesis of both African and European cultural elements.”

May combine two claims.

MacDonald was aware of foreign criticisms about a neglected 'slum empire', not just in Nazi propaganda, but also in French, Italian, and even Polish commentaries.

“MacDonald was aware of foreign criticisms about a neglected 'slum empire', not just in Nazi propaganda, but also in French, Italian, and even Polish commentaries.”

• cites [182]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The fall of Singapore destroyed the myth that Britain was capable of protecting Australia and New Zealand, and thus disposed them to look to the United States for protection.

“The fall of Singapore destroyed the myth that Britain was capable of protecting Australia and New Zealand, and thus disposed them to look to the United States for protection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Malaya should have been better prepared against Japanese attack, and this was not given the high political priority it deserved in 1940-1.

“More certainly, Malaya should have been better prepared against Japanese attack.This was not given the high political priority it deserved in 1940-1.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It was to lead to a great deal of trouble and anxiety as decolonisation unfolded.

“It was to lead to a great deal of trouble and anxiety as decolonisation unfolded.”

• cites [206]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Not to have done more to provide Singapore with static defences to the north was lamentably unsound militarily and politically.

“Not to have done more to provide Singapore with static defences to the north was lamentably unsound militarily and politically.”