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Slavery in Early Modern China
Abstract
China's social history offers vivid confirmation of the insights of David Brion Davis, Orlando Patterson, Eric Foner, and others that the existence of an ancient, stable, conceptually absolute institution of “slavery” is a powerful impetus to the production of an equally absolute conception of “freedom.” Although a wide spectrum of unfree labor, dependency, and coercion is discernible in Asian history generally and in China particularly, there is no precise parallel to the Roman legal construction of slavery. In China the absolute legal definition of slave status, or the associations with race and culture that might have inspired an equally absolute ideal of personal or national freedom, never emerged. On the other hand, influence of Roman legal dichotomies of slave and free in the shaping of European and American scholarship on coercion need not so obscure our view of other traditions that slavery is not plainly visible to the modern eye. The cognates of many forms of European slavery persisted in China for millennia. They left a wide trail in law and in the popular lexicon. They also supplied a dimension to modern notions of ethnic identity. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, China was conquered and then governed by the Qing Empire, which survived until 1912. The empire was initiated in 1636, at what is now the city of Shenyang in the province of Liaoning, but at the time was territory wrested from Ming China by the founders of the early Qing Empire.
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In early modern China, statutory language on property rights did not delineate control from ownership, treating these as indistinguishable and inseparable.
“In early modern China, statutory language on property rights did not delineate ' control ' from ' ownership ' , treating these as indistinguishable and inseparable (Crossley 2011, p 187).”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011, p 187
In early modern China, contracts claiming to place people in servitude were subsequently recognised as slavery where the term of the contract was indefinite or extended for a sufficiently long period of time.
“Crossley (2011) notes that in early modern China, contracts claiming to place people in servitude (applying to people not legally permitted to be enslaved) were subsequently recognised as slavery, and the persons legally categorised as slaves, where the term of the contract was indefinite or extended for a sufficiently long period of time as to echo this.”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011
In a range of other historical slaveries, othering was not founded on race.
“In a range of other historical slaveries, othering was not founded on race.”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011
In some instances, enslaved persons were permitted to report to the court and provide testimony.
“In some instances, enslaved persons were permitted to report to the court and provide testimony.”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011, p 202
Only legally categorised 'base' people in early modern China could be subject to enslavement.
“Only legally categorised ' base ' people in early modern China could be subject to enslavement (Crossley 2011).”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011
Social class in pre-imperial China was inherited and inalienable, and 'base' people were typically born into their status.
“Social class was inherited and inalienable, and ' base ' people were typically born into their status.”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011
In China, delineation of societal groups derived from pre-imperial times differentiated between 'common' and 'base' populations-the latter group being subjected to a distinctive and more severe legal regime, and the only persons that could be lawfully enslaved.
“In China, delineation of societal groups derived from pre-imperial times differentiated between ' common ' and ' base ' populations -the latter group being subjected to a distinctive (and more severe) legal regime, and the only persons that could be lawfully enslaved (Crossley 2011).”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011
In pre-imperial China enslaved people were forbidden from owning property, denied recognition of marriage and legitimacy of children, could not pursue legal action in court, and were restricted from acting as witnesses except in particular circumstances.
“In pre-imperial China enslaved people were forbidden from owning property, denied recognition of marriage and legitimacy of children (who were thereby enslaved), could not pursue legal action in court, and were restricted from acting as witnesses except in particular circumstances (Crossley 2011, p 191).”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011, p 191
People in China might also decline to 'base' status, and therefore be subjected to enslavement, as prisoners of war, convicted criminals, or those identified as 'idle'.
“However, people might also decline to ' base ' status (and therefore be subjected to enslavement) as ' prisoners of war, convicted criminals, of being identified as ' idle '' (Crossley 2011, p 189).”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011, p 189
The use of language to describe enslaved populations, from dehumanising labels in early modern China and the denial of family names in the ancient Near East to derogatory and racist epithets in the transatlantic system, evidences othering.
“This is evidenced through the use of language to describe enslaved populations, from dehumanising labels characterising enslaved persons as ' nameless ' and ' not human ' in early modern China (Crossley 2011, p 190) and the denial of family names to those enslaved in ancient Near East (Mendelson 1949, p 31), to derogatory and racist epithets of ' negro ' , ' nigger ' , ' colored ' , and ' black '”
From Collapsing the Boundaries Between De Jure and De Facto Slavery: The Foundations of Slavery Beyond the Transatlantic Frame (2020) · cites this paper as Crossley 2011, p 190
Citations
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Slavery and Empire in Central Asia
Eden, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108637329 · Cited by 41
Schwarz, K., & Nicholson, A. (2020) · Human Rights Review · doi:10.1007/s12142-020-00604-y · Cited by 8
“In China, delineation of societal groups 16 While Patterson also identifies ‘natal alienation’, the term is part of the composite definition of slavery posited, as opposed to alien identity as conceived by Lovejoy, which speaks to marginalisation and ‘othering’. derived from pre-imperial times differentiated between ‘…”
BackgroundInfluentialSlavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850
Ekama, K., Hellman, L., & van Rossum, M. (2022) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110777246 · Cited by 4
The Abolition of Slavery and the Status of Slaves in Late Imperial China
Chevaleyre, C. (2019) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95957-0_3 · Cited by 3
Rewriting Bondage: Literacy and Slavery in a Qing Native Domain
Mueggler, E. (2021) · Comparative Studies in Society and History · doi:10.1017/s0010417520000390 · Cited by 2
Hellman, L. (2022) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110777246-009 · Cited by 1
Introduction: Enslavement and the Slave Trade in Asia
Hågerdal, H. (2022) · Slavery and Abolition · doi:10.1080/0144039x.2021.2008723 · Cited by 1
“Marxist/Marxian-inspired maxim that while slavery was a characteristic feature of ancient Chinese society, it was not important during later periods in the country’s history.(15) With some exceptions, Indian historical consciousness has focused on caste and religious divisions and minimized the role that slavery and s…”
BackgroundRönnbäck, K. (2024) · Journal of Global Slavery · doi:10.1163/2405836x-00903002 · Cited by 1
Zhang, N. L. (2016) · Extrême-Orient Extrême-Occident · doi:10.4000/extremeorient.605 · Cited by 1
Hellman, L. (2021) · Journal of Global History · doi:10.1017/s1740022821000176 · Cited by 1
Understanding Slavery in Early Modern Asia
McManus, S. M. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119626282.ch5 · Cited by 1
Borders before Nations: Encounters in the Akan and Dzungar Borderlands, 1450–1750
Hellman, L., & Smith, E. (2022) · Journal of Early Modern History · doi:10.1163/15700658-bja10054
The Socioeconomic Image of China in the Early Modern Age and the Debate on the Decline of Castile
Blas, L. P., & Gorostiza, J. L. R. (2024) · History of Political Economy · doi:10.1215/00182702-11330085
Metadata
- Authors
- Crossley, P. K.
- Affiliations
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle
- Venue
- The Cambridge World History of Slavery
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2011-07-25
- Pages
- 186-214
- OpenAlex
- W2503053878
- Cited by
- 13
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2024: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Colonialism, slavery, and trade
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Legal and cultural studies analysis
- Keywords
- slavery, early modern China, Qing dynasty, unfree labour, coercion, legal status of slaves, ethnic identity, dependency
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