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Cited by 7Ancient and Medieval Archaeology StudiesChinese history and philosophyDeath, Funerary Practices, and Mourning

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 11 of the 11 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 56 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

INCORPORATING ALL FOR ONE: THE FIRST EMPEROR'S TOMB MOUND

Open access
Shi, Jie·2014·Early China
DOI 10.1017/eac.2014.14
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Abstract

The towering earthen mound standing at the center of the First Emperor of Qin, Qin Shihuangdi's (259–210 b.c.e.) Lishan necropolis at present-day Lintong in Xi'an, Shaanxi province was arguably the single greatest burial marker in ancient China. For centuries, this gigantic unopened monument has sparked curiosity and aroused interest among people regarding its nature. Without physically damaging the target, in 2001–2003 Chinese archaeologists used a new geophysical remote sensor to scan the surface of the mound, digitally probed into its inner structure, and detected a nine-stepped wall that bounds an aboveground burial shaft stretching down deep into the ground. This novel structure begs the following questions: what are the basic elements of this tomb mound, how do they work together within a coherent plan, and why was it made? Based on previous scholarship, this article conducts a more thorough analysis of the tomb mound and compares it with the excavated Eastern Zhou royal tombs of the Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, Yan, and Zhongshan states. The results demonstrate that rather than following a single model of a single state, the Lishan tomb mound incorporated almost all the major features of its Eastern Zhou predecessors, including but not limited to the external tumulus, the internal stepped wall or terrace, simulated galleries, and the freestanding ritual halls. This article argues that by creatively incorporating all the provincial ingredients into one imperial unity, the complex tomb mound unified multiple funerary practices of China. What's more, the tomb mound, most likely constructed after Qin's political unification of China in 221 b.c.e., perfectly embodies the new notion of empire and the political ambition of the First Emperor who strove throughout his life for becoming the “first” in Chinese history by merging all the past traditions. 摘要 秦始皇帝（公元前 259–210 年）的高大封土矗立於陝西省西安市臨潼區秦驪山陵園的中心，可稱為中國古代最大的墓表建筑。若干世紀以來，這座未曾發掘的封土激發了人們對其性質的好奇和興趣。2001–2003 年，在不破壞封土的情況下，中國考古學家使用一種新型的地球物理遙感器掃描了封土表面，以數字化方式深入其內部結構，結果探測到一座高達九層的封土圍墻，環繞形成一個地上的墓坑，墓坑垂直深入地表之下。這個嶄新的結構提出了一系列問題：這座封土的基本元素為何？這些元素如何統一於一個整體方案之中？緣何要建造這座封土？ 在吸收前賢學術成果的基礎上，本文對這座封土做了更為徹底的分析，并將其和已經發掘的東周時期秦、魏、趙、齊、楚、韓、燕和中山諸國的王陵加以比較。研究結果顯示驪山封土并非遵循一國或一陵的舊例，而是囊括了東周眾多先例幾乎全部的主要特征，包括（但不限於）外部墳塚、內部階梯式圍墻或高臺、模擬迴廊、獨立享堂等。本文試圖論證：這座複雜的封土融合了各種地方元素，統一了中國多樣的喪葬習俗。而且，這座封土很可能建於秦始皇統一六國之後，因此完美地體現了帝國的新觀念和秦始皇的政治雄心：終其一生，他努力地通過并兼所有過去的舊傳統來成就中國歷史上的前無古人（“始”）。

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/eac.2014.14

Cites

11 of 11 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 56 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Introduction

    Stratigraphy shows that the wall was built first and later buried under the tumulus.

    “The stratigraphy indicates that the wall must have been built first before it was eventually interred under the tumulus”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Introduction

    Traces of wooden structures were found on some steps of the wall.

    “Remains of wooden structures were detected on some steps of the wall.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § Introduction

    Remote-sensing results show that the apparently simple mound is actually a complex structure made of two kinds of rammed earth.

    “The result of the remote sensing scan demonstrates that the seemingly simple mound is in fact a complex construction made of two different types of rammed earth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The geophysical remote-sensing scan accurately reveals the mound's internal structure without excavation.
  • Findingcitation
    § Between "Tumulus Tomb" and "Shrine Tomb"

    No burnt charcoal traces were detected on the steps of the wall.

    “No traces of burnt charcoal were detected on the steps of the wall”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data
    § Introduction

    The coarse-grained earth forms a tumulus that covers and hides the wall from above and from the sides.

    “The coarse-grained earth forms a tumulus to cover and conceal the wall from above and from the sides.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 44
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Introduction

    The fine-grained earth forms a rectangular wall interrupted by two ramps, one on the west and one on the east.

    “Enclosing a rectangular zone, the finegrained earth forms a wall cut through by two ramps in the west and the east respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Introduction

    The wall is thirty meters high, has nine steps on each side, and encloses a central vertical shaft.

    “This wall, thirty meters high with nine steps on each side, bounds a vertical shaft in the center.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Introduction

    The wall's outer base measures 168 by 141 meters, and its inner top measures 124 by 107 meters.

    “The exterior of this wall measures 168 by 141 meters at the base and the walled interior measures 124 by 107 meters at the top.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Introduction

    One portion of the mound uses coarse-grained earth pounded with broad-headed hammers, while another uses fine-grained earth pounded with narrow-headed hammers.

    “One part of the mound is constructed of coarse-grained earth rammed with broad-headed hammers, and the other part, fine-grained earth done with narrowheaded hammers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Introduction

    Earth samples taken from inside the First Emperor's mound are not uniform; they reflect different ramming methods.

    “Unlike Eastern Zhou tomb mounds, earth samples extracted from inside this mound are not homogeneous, but results of different methods of earth ramming.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    In Pingshan Tomb 6 simulated galleries lined the interior walls of the aboveground shaft, whereas in the First Emperor's tomb they were moved to the exterior steps of the shaft or terraced wall to be visible from afar.

    “whereas in Pingshan Tomb 6 the simulated galleries were located along the interior walls of the aboveground shaft, in the First Emperor's tomb they moved out onto the exterior steps of the shaft (or the terraced wall) so that they could catch the attention of outside viewers from afar”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The royal cemeteries at Fengxiang, Lintong, and Lixian show that Qin royal burial customs varied across the Eastern Zhou and did not follow a linear evolution.

    “the difference among the royal cemeteries at Fengxiang and at Lintong in Shaanxi and the recently discovered one at present-day Lixian in Gansu demonstrates that the Qin royal burial customs varied throughout the Eastern Zhou period without following a linear evolution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The eastward orientation of tomb ramps was not exclusive to Qin, because Zhao royal tombs at Handan were west-to-east oriented and Qin mausoleums I and II at Xianyangyuan had longest ramps oriented north.

    “All large tombs in the royal cemetery of the Zhao state at Handan were oriented from the west to the east, 64 and the newly discovered Qin mausoleums I and II at Xianyangyuan in the late third century B.C.E.contained two great tombs whose longest ramps were oriented to the north rather than to the east.65”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [64]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [65]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The Shenheyuan Qin royal mausoleum had both a wall and a moat, suggesting Qin funerary practice may never have rejected walls.

    “the recently published Qin royal mausoleum at Shenheyuan (dated late 3rd c.B.C.E.) boasted both a wall and a moat, indicating that the Qin funerary practice perhaps never really rejected the use of walls (Table 2).62”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    In the fifth-century BCE Yongcheng royal cemetery, tumuli disappeared and aboveground ritual buildings appeared over the burials.

    “In the later Yongcheng royal cemetery during the fifth century B.C.E., however, tumuli disappeared while aboveground ritual buildings emerged above the burials.57”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Qi and Chu elevated tombs rarely had more than two levels of terraced walls, perhaps because such walls would be hidden under the earthen heap.

    “the Qi and Chu”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Simulated galleries of Zhongshan, Yan, and Wei were built in shafts above the burial chamber and were meant to be concealed, while real shrines of Qin, Wei, and Zhongshan stood above ground to attract passersby.

    “The simulated galleries of Zhongshan, Yan, and Wei states were constructed in the shafts above the burial chamber, which were to be interred and become concealed from outside viewers; the real shrines of Qin, Wei, and Zhongshan stood above the ground to catch the attention of passersby.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Zhongshan tombs had higher stepped walls but rejected tumuli because tumuli would obstruct the walls.

    “the Zhongshan tombs, despite having much higher stepped walls, rejected tumuli, because the latter would have stood in the way of the former.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Eastern Zhou royal tombs were called ling, or hill, but the First Emperor's necropolis was distinctively designated shan, or mountain.

    “Whereas Eastern Zhou royal tombs used to be called ling陵 (hill), the First Emperor's necropolis, distinctively, was designated shan 山(mountain).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The Lishan necropolis was designed and built for the First Emperor alone, unlike traditional collective royal necropolises.

    “Unlike the traditional collective necropolis shared by several generations of a royal lineage, the Lishan necropolis was designed and built for the First Emperor alone.79”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § 廿六年，皇帝盡并兼天下諸侯， 黔首大安，立號為皇帝。

    In stone inscriptions from his inspection tours, the First Emperor emphasized ending civil war and bringing peace and welfare equally to all under heaven rather than boasting Qin's sole power or royal lineage.

    “In a number of stone inscriptions the emperor made in several sites during his inspectional tours to the conquered eastern provinces, rather than boasting the sole power of Qin or mystifying the Qin royal lineage, the texts put emphasis on the emperor's merit of ending the civil war and bringing peace and welfare equally to all the people under heaven.84”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    The tomb mound was probably built after Qin's political unification in 221 B.C.E. and expresses the new imperial idea and the First Emperor's political ambition.

    “What's more, the tomb mound, most likely constructed after Qin's political unification of China in 221 B.C.E., perfectly embodies the new notion of empire and the political ambition of the First Emperor who strove”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Introduction

    The nine-stepped wall sets the First Emperor's tomb apart from all other Chinese tombs excavated so far.

    “To the archaeologists this magnificent nine-stepped wall distinguishes the First Emperor's tomb from all other Chinese tombs excavated so far.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Between "Tumulus Tomb" and "Shrine Tomb"

    The First Emperor's stepped structure is not a multistory building on a solid earthen terrace like Cuo's three-stepped freestanding shrine; it is a nine-stepped wall around a burial shaft.

    “First, the First Emperor's stepped structure is not a multistory building based on a solid earthen terrace as Cuo's three-stepped freestanding shrine, but a nine-stepped wall bounding a burial shaft.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premiseown data
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Cuo's tomb had an aboveground shaft bordered by a six-stepped earthen terrace, on which a freestanding shrine once stood.

    “This complex structure finds one of its closest prototypes in Cuo's tomb: the aboveground shaft bordered by a six-stepped earthen terrace, on which the freestanding shrine once stood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Ma'anzhong Tomb and Jiuliandun Tomb 1 were analogous to the Qi elevated type, each with an aboveground stepped wall around the upper opening of the tomb shaft.

    “Ma'anzhong Tomb, located in present-day Huaiyang in Henan province, and Jiuliandun Tomb 1, in present-day Zaoyang in Hubei province, were analogous to the Qi elevated type.Both tombs featured an aboveground stepped wall in one or more levels rimming the upper opening of the tomb shaft.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    The nine-stepped wall hidden under the tumulus combines a high wall with a stepped terrace.

    “The nine-stepped wall eventually hidden beneath the tumulus combines a high wall with a stepped terrace.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Both the Qin and Zhongshan tombs have three vertical levels: the casket below, the aboveground shaft in the middle, and the earthen mound above.

    “With an aboveground stepped terrace hollow in the center to contain the underground burial chamber, both the Qin and the Zhongshan tombs vertically consist of three levels: the bottom level of the casket, the middle level of the aboveground shaft, and the top level of the earthen mound.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Cuo's terrace is a high stepped earthen wall around an aboveground shaft, approached by two ramps on the north and south.

    “Reminiscent of the First Emperor's nine-stepped wall, this terrace is a high-stepped earthen wall that bounds the aboveground shaft, approached by two ramps in the north and in the south respectively”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Cuo's terrace was lower and rectangular rather than square, but its general structure resembles the First Emperor's stepped wall.

    “Although unlike the First Emperor's stepped wall, Cuo's terrace was considerably lower and was rectangular rather than square, the latter's general structure is similar to the former's.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Between "Tumulus Tomb" and "Shrine Tomb"

    The First Emperor's nine-stepped wall was a hollow terrace meant to be buried, while Cuo's offering hall was designed to stand free.

    “In other words, the First Emperor's nine-stepped wall was a hollow terrace eventually to be interred, whilst Cuo's offering hall was designed to be freestanding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    In the Qi royal cemetery, several tombs had upper burial shafts formed by stepped rammed-earth walls and appeared slightly raised above ground.

    “While excavating the royal cemetery of the Qi state in present-day Linzi in Shandong province, archaeologists discovered the upper part of the burial shaft in several tombs was formed by similar stepped walls constructed of rammed earth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Unlike the Qi, Chu, or Zhao examples, the First Emperor's tomb mound was more than a stepped wall; it also imitated a multistory building with roofed wooden structures on the upper steps.

    “Unlike its Qi, Chu, or Zhao counterparts, however, the First Emperor's tomb mound was more than a stepped wall; it also simulated a multistory building with roofed wooden structures built on the steps near the top.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    The Qi and Chu stepped walls were covered by a tumulus and had no wooden structures, making them forerunners of the First Emperor's taller mound.

    “Despite the fewer steps and lower profile, these relatively modest Qi and Chu stepped walls were similarly concealed beneath a tumulus, onto which no wooden structures were added.36 In this regard, these stepped walls were forerunners of the First Emperor's much higher mound.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    Because the top of the mound had no architectural remains, the temporary building may have imitated galleries erected on the upper levels of the nine-stepped wall.

    “Because the top of the mound was found empty of architectural remains, this temporary building might have simulated a series of galleries erected but on the upper levels of the nine-stepped wall”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    The false pilasters in Pingshan Tomb 6 were made of vertically stacked mud bricks and had no function.

    “Set in the slightly sloping walls, these false pilasters constituted by vertically stacked mud bricks were totally functionless.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    The pillared gallery in Pingshan Tomb 6 simulated a multistory building.

    “To the excavators, this pillared gallery, reminiscent of architectural images on Eastern Zhou pictorial bronze vessels with pillars or pilasters evenly spaced on different levels, 39 simulated a multistory building.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [39]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [40] source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    In Pingshan Tomb 6, the aboveground shaft's interior walls were plastered, whitened, and decorated with evenly spaced simulated pilasters.

    “Plastered and whitened, the interior walls of the aboveground shaft, in shape of a reversed truncated pyramid, were embellished and decorated with simulated pilasters spaced evenly along the walls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    False pillared galleries were not unique to Zhongshan; Xuliangzhong Tomb 8 in the Yan royal cemetery is another well-preserved example.

    “Such false pillared galleries were not unique to the Zhongshan state; the excavation of Xuliangzhong Tomb 8 in a royal cemetery of the Yan state at present-day Yixian, Hebei province, brought to light another wellpreserved example.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § The Incorporate Tomb Mound

    The Zhongshan and Yan galleries were pure architectural imitations without real function, while the Qin examples used actual wooden posts and tiles.

    “Whereas the Zhongshan and Yan galleries were total architectural simulacra without actual functions, the Qin counterparts consisted of real wooden posts and tiles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Through borrowing and alteration, the First Emperor's tomb mound absorbed many existing funerary practices yet remained distinctive overall.

    “By such borrowing and alteration, the First Emperor's tomb mound absorbed a variety of existing funerary practices but remained distinctive as a whole.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The reformist camp identified with East of the Passes and Confucianism, embracing compassion and ritual, while the modernist camp was associated with Guanzhong or Qin and believed in strategies, law, and punishment.

    “The former camp identified itselfwith so-called East of the Passes (guandong關東 ), the birthplace of Confucianism whose political doctrine embraced compassion (ren 仁) and ritual (li 禮); the latter was associated with the region called Inside the Passes (Guanzhong 關中 ), or, Qin, whose rulers believed in the effectiveness of strategies, law, and punishment in governing people.54”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    The tomb mound, unlike the concealed burial, stayed visible and could be inspected by attentive viewers.

    “Unlike the burial to be concealed underground, the mound remained visible to the public and could be examined by careful viewers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    Yantie lun described two opposing ideological camps in the Western Han court: Confucian scholar officials and bureaucrats, or reformists and modernists.

    “Yantie lun 鹽鐵論(comp.1st c.B.C.E.) described two opposite ideological camps in the Western Han court: the Confucian scholar officials (xianliang 賢良or wenxue 文學) and the bureaucrats (dafu 大夫or yushi 御史), or, in Michael Loewe's words, the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisereasoning
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The Qin-East cultural dichotomy became a tempting framework for earlier studies of the mausoleum.

    “the dichotomy of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    Yang Kuan's 1984 essay demonstrated that the First Emperor's mausoleum was based collectively on Warring States royal mausoleums.

    “historian Yang Kuan 楊寬in his 1984 essay on the cemetery plan of the Lishan necropolis demonstrated that the First Emperor's mausoleum was based collectively on royal mausoleums of the Warring States.47”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The nine-stepped terraced wall, temporary architecture simulation, and outermost tumulus were not invented under the First Emperor but were combined into one unity.

    “The nine-stepped terraced wall, the temporary architecture simulation, and the outermost tumulus, which were not invented under the reign of the First Emperor, were in fact incorporated into one unity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Cultural Context of the Tomb Mound

    The First Emperor was perhaps more obsessed than any other figure in Chinese history with becoming unique and first.

    “But perhaps no other personalities in Chinese history were more obsessed than the First Emperor by becoming unique and”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The site north of the mound has been identified as the formal resting-chamber, a ritual hall for the deceased emperor's afterlife activities.

    “This site has been identified as the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The First Emperor's tomb mound absorbed diverse elements from Eastern Zhou royal tombs, which can be interpreted in the context of China's unification into an empire.

    “The fact that the First Emperor's tomb mound absorbed diverse elements from Eastern Zhou royal tombs can be interpreted in the historical context of China's unification into an empire.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Duan Qingbo suggests that this building may have been a ritual equivalent of Cuo's offering shrine.

    “Duan Qingbo properly suggests that this building might have been a ritual equivalent of Cuo's offering shrine (see Figs. 3a, 3b).69”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The cemetery moat was not truly absent from the First Emperor's mausoleum but was upgraded by full-scale rivers and waters across the necropolis.

    “archaeologist Zhu Sihong 朱思紅made an interesting point, claiming that the moat was not really missing, but”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    Sima Qian records that when the First Emperor ascended the throne, he ordered men to dig and construct Mount Li.

    “According to Sima Qian,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    This building was temporary and was to be buried under an even higher mound later covered by trees and grass.

    “Meanwhile, this spectacular building only existed as a temporary building to be interred under an even higher mound, which was later covered by trees and grass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The creation of the hybrid mound and its structures was part of the First Emperor's lifelong political ambition to incorporate the World under Heaven and be the first in history.

    “The creation of this hybrid mound and its affiliated structures, as is argued below, was part of the First Emperor's life-long political ambition: by incorporating the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    In Sima Qian's account, the First Emperor himself coined the new imperial designation.

    “In Sima Qian's account the new imperial designation was coined by the First Emperor himself.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation
    § 廿六年，皇帝盡并兼天下諸侯， 黔首大安，立號為皇帝。

    The First Emperor chose the neutral designation Black Heads for his subjects to lower Qin's alien conqueror profile and show the whole world as one family.

    “the First Emperor instead of naming his imperial subjects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusion

    The First Emperor's tomb mound was old because its major components came from earlier Eastern Zhou royal tombs, and new because their creative combination produced an unprecedented synthesis.

    “It was old because all its major components-terraced wall, simulated building, tumulus, grass and trees, offering hall, pastime-palace, walls, waterways, etc.-derived from the earlier Eastern Zhou royal tombs; it was new because the creative way in which these components were put together gave rise to an unprecedented synthesis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    By merging Huang and Di, the First Emperor refused to identify with any earlier ruler and instead impersonated all of them in a synthetic form.

    “By merging the two titles Huang and Di, he refused to identify himself with any of the earlier individual rulers but impersonated all of them in an innovative synthetic form.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sima Qian's account of the First Emperor's tomb construction and the title episode is historically credible.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Imperializing the Tomb Mound

    The emperor rejected the ministers' proposal of Primeval August and created August Thearch by combining August and Thearch.

    “Delete”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusion

    The real meaning of the tomb mound lies in China's first unification under a bureaucratic government led by an ambitious historical personality.

    “The real meaning of this creative work, as I have demonstrated, was concealed in its particular historical context, i.e.China's first unification under a bureaucratic government masterminded by an ambitious historical personality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
56 of 56

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The geophysical remote-sensing scan accurately reveals the mound's internal structure without excavation.

    “thanks to a remote sensing detector equipped with the latest geophysical technologies, Chinese archaeologists were able to scan and to reveal the interior physical structure of the mound without removing a shovel of earth.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Similarities among tomb features across different states indicate historical incorporation or derivation rather than independent parallel development.

    “The results demonstrate that rather than following a single model of a single state, the Lishan tomb mound incorporated almost all the major features of its Eastern Zhou predecessors”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The excavated Eastern Zhou royal tombs are suitable comparanda for interpreting the First Emperor's tomb mound.

    “By comparing the major characteristics of this tomb mound with those of late Eastern Zhou royal tombs, this essay investigates the way in which this unprecedented structure derived and departed from early funerary traditions.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Sima Qian's account of the First Emperor's tomb construction and the title episode is historically credible.

    “This historical episode, if credible, betrays two different ways of thinking between the emperor and his ministers in understanding the relationship between emperorship and the previous kingship.”
4 of 4

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 75

  1. 1975, Qin Shi Huang jinshi keci zhu
  2. 2005, Qin zhaoban yanjiu, Wenbo, 2, 78
  3. Wei, 1995, Fengxiang Lintong Qinling haogou zuoyong shitan, Kaogu, 1, 78
  4. 1993, Qin Dongling disihao lingyuan diaocha zuantan jianbao, Kaogu yu wenwu, 3, 48
  5. 1955, Yijiuwusan nian Anyang Dasikongcun fajue baogao, Kaogu xuebao, 1, 25
  6. Wei, 1981, Lüelun Shaanxi Chunqiu Zhanguo Qin mu, Kaogu yu wenwu, 1, 83
  7. Lina, 2009, Qin Shi Huang fengtu gaodu wenti shitan, Wenbo, 5, 40
  8. 2012, Qin Shihuangdi ling beibu xice jianzhu yizhi de xingzhi ji xiangguan wenti, Kaogu, 6, 69
  9. 1986, Qin Han fengsu dili quhua qianyi, Lishi dili, 13, 55
  10. 1994, Tengzhou Qianzhangda Shangdai muzang dimian jianzhu qianxi, Kaogu, 2, 146
  11. 1992, Chen Zhi xiansheng jinian wenji, 128
  12. 1989, Shilun Qinguo lingqin zhidu de tedian, Baoji shiyuan xuebao, 1, 77
  13. Nienhauser, 1994, The Grand Scribe's Records
  14. 1996, Dui Qin Dongling youguan wenti de jidian kanfa, Kaogu yu wenwu, 5, 28
  15. 1997, Tōhō Gakkai sōritsu gojisshūnen kinen tōhōgaku ronshū, 1302
  16. 1987, Qin Shi Huang lingyuan buju jiegou yuanyuan qiantan, Wenbo, 1, 14
  17. 2002, Yinshan Yuewang ling, 62
  18. Xinian, 1980, Zhanguo Zhongshanwang Cuo mu chutu de Zhaoyutu jiqi lingyuan guizhi de yanjiu, Kaogu xuebao, 1, 97
  19. 1991, Kaogu, 2, 157
  20. 2005, Tengzhou Qianzhangda mudi, 2
  21. 1981, Tianxia zhi min bule wei Qin min—shitan Qin Shi Huang ‘geng min yue Qianshou’ de lishi yuanyuan, Anhui shida xuebao, 3, 94
  22. 1996, Jindu Xintian, 148
  23. Xinian, 1998, Fu Xinian Jianzhushi lunwenji, 96
  24. Hongxun, 2007, Qin Shi Huang ling xiangtang ji digong jianzhu caixiang, Zhongguo wenhua yichan, 3, 87
  25. 1963, Chūgoku kōkogaku kenkyū
  26. Qingbo, 2011, Qin Shihuangdi lingyuan kaogu yanjiu
  27. Legge, 1966, The Chinese Classics: The Ch'un ts'ew, with the Tso chuen
  28. 1996, Yan Xiadu, 2
  29. Chuoyun, 1994, Zhongguo lishi lunwenji, 1
  30. Kuan, 1985, Zhongguo gudai lingqin zhidushi yanjiu, 32
  31. Baocheng, 2002, Yinxu wenhua yanjiu
  32. Segalen, 1923, Mission archéologique en Chine (1914)
  33. 2000, Lixian Dabaozishan Qingong mudi ji youguan wenti, Wenwu, 5, 74
  34. 1985, Luoyang Xijiao sihaomu fajue jianbao, Wenwu ziliao congkan, 9, 141
  35. 2006, Shilun Qin wenhua zhong de Weigoumu jiqi xiangguan wenti, Shaanxi lishi bowuguan guankan, 13, 77
  36. Sihong, 2006, Qin Shi Huang lingyuan fanwei xin tansuo, Kaogu yu wenwu, 6, 42
  37. Qingbo, 2006, Qin Shi Huang fengtu jianzhu tantao––jianshi ‘zhong cheng guan you’, Kaogu, 5, 72
  38. Xueli, 1994, Qin Shi Huang ling yanjiu
  39. 2009, Henan Xinzheng Huzhuang Han wangling kaogu faxian gaishu, Huaxia kaogu, 3, 14
  40. Weixing, 2009, Shilun Qin Shi Huang ling zhangzhi de tupo, Kaogu yu wenwu, 5, 68
  41. Wei, 1987, Fengxiang Qin gong lingyuan dierci zuantan baogao, Wenwu, 5, 55
  42. 2002, Gushi de kaoguxue tansuo, 352
  43. 2005, Zhanguo Zhongshanguo Lingshou cheng: 1975–1993 nian kaogu fajue baogao
  44. 1990, Qin Shi Huang lingyuan yuanyuan shitan, Wenbo, 5, 164
  45. Gu, 1965, Hanshu
  46. 1994, Zhongguo fengtu mu de chansheng he liuxing, Kaogu, 6, 556
  47. Qingbo, 2005, Qin Shihuangdi ling de wutan kaogu diaocha—863 jihua Qin Shi Huang ling wutan kaogu jinzhan qingkuang de baogao, Xibei daxue xuebao, 1, 80
  48. Qian, 1959, Shiji
  49. 2004, Qin Xichui lingqu
  50. 1933, Chōan shiseki no kenkyū
  51. 1982, Hebei Handan Zhao wangling, Kaogu, 6, 597
  52. 2003, Hubei Zaoyang shi Jiuliandun Chu mu, Kaogu, 7, 12
  53. 1987, Xi Han shiyi ling
  54. 1984, Qin Shi Huang lingyuan buju jiegou de tantao, Wenbo, 3, 10
  55. 2008, Shaanxi Chang'an Shenheyuan Zhanguo Qin lingyuan yizhi tianye kaogu xin shouhuo, Kaogu yu wenwu, 5, 111
  56. Kazuyuki, 1995, Shin Shi Kōtei rei kensetsu no jidai: Sengoku, tōitsu, taigai sensō, nairan, Tōyōshi Kenkyū, 53, 632
  57. 1983, Fengxiang Qin gong lingyuan zuantan yu shijue jianbao, Wenwu, 7, 30
  58. 2008, Xianyangyuan shang ‘Qinling’ de faxian he queren, Wenwu, 4, 62
  59. 1956, Huixian fajue baogao
  60. 1964, Xi Han zhengquan yu shehui shili de jiaohu zuoyong, Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan, 35, 261
  61. Chunchang, 2007, Zhuisu yu tansuo: Jinian Handan shi wenwu baohu yanjiusuo chengli sishiwu zhounian xueshu yantaohui wenji
  62. 2007, Qin Shihuangdi lingyuan kaogu baogao 2001–2003, 95
  63. 1962, Qin Shi Huang ling diaocha baogao, Kaogu, 8, 407
  64. 1979, Qin Shi Huang ling bei er san si hao jianzhu yiji, Wenwu, 12, 13
  65. 1983, Guanyu Shi Huang ling fengtu jianzhu wenti, Kaogu, 10, 958
  66. 1956, Huixian fajue baogao, 70
  67. Hongxun, 1980, Zhanguo Zhongshan wangling ji zhaoyutu yanjiu, Kaogu xuebao, 1, 132
  68. 2007, Linzi Qi mu
  69. 1995, Shiba Sen no jidai to Shi kōtei—Shin Shi Kō hongi hensan no rekishi teki haikei, Tōyō gakuhō, 77, 1
  70. 1995, Kandai ni okeru Shin ōchō shikan no hensen—Kagi ‘Ka Shi ron,’ Shiba Sen ‘Shin Shi Kō hongi’ o chūshin toshite, Ibaraki Daigaku Kyōyōbu kiyō, 29, 1
  71. 2009, Guanyu Shengheyuan damu ji xiangguan wenti de taolun, Kaogu yu wenwu, 4, 53
  72. 1990, Qin Dongling dierhao lingyuan diaocha zuantan jianbao, Kaogu yu wenwu, 4, 22
  73. 1996, Cuo mu: Zhongshanguo guowang zhi mu, 2
  74. 1980, Shisanjing zhushu, 2
  75. 1987, Qin Dongling diyihao lingyuan kanchaji, Kaogu yu wenwu, 4, 19

Cited by

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Metadata

Authors
Shi, J.
Affiliations
University of Chicago (US)
Corresponding author
Shi, Jie
ORCID
Shi, Jie
Venue
Early China
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2014-09-30
Volume
37
Pages
359-391
ISSN
  • 0362-5028 (ISSN-L)
  • 2325-2324
DOI
10.1017/eac.2014.14
OpenAlex
W2070469613
Cited by
7
References
10
Citations by year
2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2015: 1
FWCI
1.98
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
  • Early China (publishedVersion)
  • Scholarship, Research, and Creative Work at Bryn Mawr College (Bryn Mawr College) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Death, Funerary Practices, and Mourning
Keywords
First Emperor of Qin, Qin dynasty, funerary practices, political unification, concept of empire, geophysical remote sensing

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

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