On the edges of extinction: Indigenous whaling governance, the 1977 “bowhead controversy” and its legacy

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Jørgensen's notions of how conservation work is often disproportionately driven by anticipation of future extinction speak to some of the shortcomings experienced by Indigenous whalers.

“Jørgensen’s poignant notions of how conservation work is often disproportionately driven by anticipation of future extinction speak to some of the shortcoming experienced by Indigenous whalers.”

• cites Jørgensen, 2022 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The addresses from North Slope representatives highlight the multifaceted relationship that whales and whalers share, rather than reducing whaling solely to subsistence.

“Rather than reducing whaling solely to a question of subsistence, what the addresses from North Slope representatives highlight instead the multifaceted relationship that whales and whalers share”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The statements from Edwardsen and Patkotak convey concerns that maintaining a relationship through adapted means cannot secure the social and cultural continuity of a relationship that goes beyond them.

“but the statements from Edwardsen and Patkotak convey concerns that maintaining a relationship through these adapted means cannot secure the social and cultural continuity of a relationship that goes beyond them.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On several occasions, the AEWC had been forewarned that their request might be denied due to 'political disagreements', as happened in 1977 and again in 2002.

“He noted that on several occasions, the AEWC had been forewarned that their request might be denied due to “political disagreements” as had happened earlier in 1977 and again in 2002.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

At the end of the controversy and in years following the ASW framework, North Slope villages were left with quotas totalling mere fractions of their previous catches.

“At the end of the controversy and in the years following the implementation of the ASW framework, North Slope villages were left with quotas that totalled mere fractions of their previous catches.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Patkotak listed considerable work that has gone into adapting hunting methods, improving efficiency, training whaling captains and crew, scientific monitoring, and liaising with the US government and IWC.

“He listed the considerable amount of work that has gone into adapting hunting methods, improving efficiency and continued training of the whaling captains and crew, on top of the scientific monitoring and liaising with the US government and IWC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The 1977 decision had been made against the better knowledge of the whaling captains.

“Patkotak also reminded the Commission that the 1977 decision had been made against the better knowledge of the whaling captains.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The IWC and the North Slope whalers work, and have worked, collaboratively to ensure the survival of bowhead whales.

“The IWC and the North Slope whalers work, and have worked, collaboratively to ensure the survival of bowhead whales.”

May combine two claims.

The Scientific Committee's recommendation was based on evaluation of alarmingly low numbers of bowheads in the Bering and Okhotsk Sea (estimated 6-10% of the 1850 population) and a recent increase in struck-but-lost whales in Alaska.

“Based on the evaluation of the alarmingly low numbers of bowheads in the Bering and Okhotsk Sea – estimated to be somewhere between 6 and 10% compared to the population size in 1850 – and the recent increase in the numbers of whales struck but lost5 by whalers in Alaska, the Scientific Committee recommended a placement of total moratorium on the hunt and catch of bowhead whales.”

May combine two claims.

After negotiations, the Commission voted to reinstate Northern Alaska bowhead hunts, with allocated strike quotas much smaller than what the villages were used to.

“After long and strenuous negotiations, the Commission eventually voted to reinstate the Northern Alaska bowhead hunts, although the allocated strike quotas were much smaller than what the villages were used to.”

May combine two claims.

At the main IWC meeting in 1977, the Commission voted 16 to 0 to remove 'right whales' from the aboriginal exemption, banning all take.

“A few weeks later, at the main IWC meeting, the Commission voted 16 to 0 for the removal of “right whales” from the aboriginal exemption, thus banning all and any take (IWC, 1978a).”

• cites IWC, 1978aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Speaking 40 years apart, both Edwardsen and Patkotak highlight the relationship between the bowhead whale, whaling practice and the cultural and social well-being of the whaling communities.

“Speaking 40 years apart, both Edwardsen and Patkotak highlight the relationship between the bowhead whale, whaling practice and the cultural and social well-being of the whaling communities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

During the previous spring season, the number of whales struck was estimated at 106.

“Considering that during the previous spring season, the number of whales struck was estimated at 106, the suggested quota was notably low.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The speakers attest to the communities' commitment to walk bowhead whales back from the verge of extinction.

“The speakers also attest to the communities’ commitment to walk bowhead whales back from the verge of extinction.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1982, the IWC formalised the term 'ASW'.

“Following a series of workshops with natural and social scientists, and some representatives from whaling communities, in 1982, the IWC formalised the term “ASW”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The people of the North Slope, like other Indigenous whalers, are keenly and intimately aware of the radical decline in whales reaching Alaska each year.

“The people of the North Slope, like other Indigenous whalers, are keenly and intimately aware of the radical decline in whales reaching Alaska each year.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The article illustrates ongoing struggles for environmental governance to recognise extinction as a complex, multifaceted process that reverberates throughout human and more-than-human communities.

“By comparing these two statements from very different points of history for the IWC and the governance of Indigenous whaling, this article illustrates some of the ongoing struggles for environmental governance to recognise extinction as a complex, multifaceted process that reverberates throughout human and more-than-human communities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two selected addresses are suitable and sufficient cases for drawing conclusions about the governance of Indigenous whaling and extinction more generally.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Documents do not simply describe an external reality; they take part in working upon, modifying and transforming that reality.

“documents and documented records “do not simply describe an external reality ‘out there’: documents also take part in working upon, modifying and transforming that reality” (Asdal, 2015:74).”

• cites Asdal, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For many whaling communities, whales and whaling hold important roles in the processes of social and cultural reproduction.

“For many whaling communities, whales and whaling hold important roles in the processes of social and cultural reproduction (Kalland, 2009; Coté, 2010; Reid, 2015; Durney, 2020, 2024; Sakakibara, 2020).”

• cites Kalland, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coté, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Reid, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The IWC has shifted from a 'whalers club' to an international governance body chiefly focused on the protection and conservation of global cetacean populations over its nearly 80-year history.

“In its nearly 80-year history, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has shifted from a “whalers club” to an international governance body chiefly focused on the protection and conservation of global cetacean populations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The IWC's statement of purpose under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling was to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry.

“The Commission’s statement of purpose, outlined by the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), consisted of a dual aim to “provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry” (ICRW, 1946).”

• cites ICRW, 1946Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The modus operandi of the IWC is to suspend the whales' presence, to avoid an anticipated future extinction.

“The modus operandi of the IWC is to suspend the whales’ presence, to avoid an anticipated future extinction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Analysing and interpreting historic and future testimonies from whalers with a more expansive approach to extinction clarifies the gravity of the issue for whaling communities and allows for a better understanding of the reverberating effects of extinction in the here and now and how to respond to them.

“Analysing and interpreting (historic and future) testimonies from whalers with a more expansive approach to extinction not only clarifies the gravity of the issue for whaling communities but also allows for a better understanding of the reverberating effects of extinction in the here and now and how to respond to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The IWC has played an instrumental role in interrupting multiple extinction events through its development and oversight of protective and regulatory measures for industrial whaling in the past eight decades.

“Despite the IWC’s undeniably instrumental role in interrupting multiple extinction events through its development and oversight of protective and regulatory measures for industrial whaling in the past eight decades”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Patkotak illustrated the extent to which his community has gone to accommodate the demands of the IWC.

“He illustrated the extent to which his community has gone to accommodate the demands of the IWC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The insecurity around the bowhead whale's survival and the continuation of the relationship between whales and whalers has and continues to reverberate through the communities.

“how the insecurity around the bowhead whale’s survival and the continuation of this relationship has and continues to reverberate through the communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent social science research on the multifaceted effects of the current mass extinction event has been brought together under the umbrella of "extinction studies".

“Alongside biology and ecology, recent research in the social sciences focused on the multifaceted effects of the current mass extinction event has been brought together under the umbrella of “extinction studies” (Bird et al., 2017).”

• cites Bird et al., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Restrictions on carryover quotas put pressure on hunters to meet their strike limits each season, despite seasonal issues like poor or dangerous hunting conditions.

“Furthermore, restrictions on carryover quotas put pressure on the hunters to meet their strike limits each season, despite seasonal issues like poor or dangerous hunting conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Managing the intensifying need for conservation measures without severing relationships and fracturing shared lifeways is a considerable, sometimes nearly insurmountable, challenge for international governance bodies like the IWC.

“Managing the intensifying need for conservation measures without severing relationships and fracturing shared lifeways is a considerable, sometimes nearly insurmountable, challenge for international governance bodies like the IWC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some identified issues with the current ASW system include removing ASW catch limits from political discussion, obtaining adequate information on ASW catch limits, and ensuring local consumption versus commercialism.

“Some of the identified issues with the current system include “removing ASW catch limits from political discussion”, “obtaining adequate information on ASW catch limits and “ensuring local consumption versus commercialism” (IWC, 2014).”

• cites IWC, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Comparing Edwardsen's 1978 address and Patkotak's 2018 address demonstrates the lasting legacy of the bowhead whale controversy and what it represents in the longer history of the IWC.

“Comparing Patkotak’s address of 2018 to that of Edwardsen’s in 1978 demonstrates the lasting legacy of the bowhead whale controversy and what it represents in the longer history of the IWC.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

May combine two claims.

The 1977 bowhead controversy led to a re-examination of the IWC's procedures and within a few years the Commission established a separate subcommittee for Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling (ASW).

“The events of 1977 led to a re-examination of the IWC’s procedures, and within a few years, the Commission established a separate subcommittee for ASW, which was tasked with redesigning the “aboriginal whaling” clause.”

May combine two claims.

The idea that the importance of whaling is tantamount to its importance as a subsistence activity is historically incorrect, because Indigenous whaling has long been a commercial activity with a significant role in trade and bordering.

“this idea has been both a. proven historically incorrect, as Indigenous whaling practice has long been a commercial activity with a significant role in trade and practices of bordering (see Coté, 2010; Reid, 2015; Shoemaker, 2015)”

• cites Coté, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Reid, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Shoemaker, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

North Slope communities and bowhead whales have a millennia-long relationship.

“Drawing on the literature in extinction studies, this article has analysed two statements from North Slope Borough whalers in relation to the governance of Indigenous whaling practice and, as a result, the millennia-long relationship between North Slope communities and bowhead whales.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

May combine two claims.

The testimonies of Edwardsen and Patkotak surpass making their case for a quota renewal as they illustrate how the people in North Slope communities are already living with and adapting to what the IWC considers a potential future scenario.

“Their testimonies surpass making their case for a quota renewal as they illustrate how the people in North Slope communities, in many ways, are already living with and adapting to what the IWC considers a (undoubtedly the worst-case) potential future scenario.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two addresses by Edwardsen (1978) and Patkotak (2018) are representative of North Slope whalers’ perspectives and can support general conclusions about North Slope communities.

May combine two claims.

Although IWC decision-making processes have become more inclusive and integrated more multi-vocality in the past four decades, the impact of the bowhead controversy is not neatly contained in the past.

“Although IWC decision-making processes have become more inclusive and integrated more multi-vocality in the past four decades, the impact of the bowhead whale controversy is not neatly contained in the past.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

At the 2018 meeting, after addressing the quota systems for Indigenous whalers, the IWC moved forward with plans to renegotiate aspects of the ASW framework based on recommendations drafted by the ASW SubCommittee and an ad hoc working group on the matter.

“At the 2018 meeting, after addressing the quota systems for Indigenous whalers discussed in this article, the IWC moved forward with plans to renegotiate aspects of the ASW framework based on recommendations drafted by the ASW SubCommittee and an ad hoc working group on the matter.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

An expanded and nuanced conceptualisation of extinction could benefit the governance of Indigenous whaling, as reckoning with the reverberating effects of extinction on whaling communities can provide pathways for the IWC to develop and integrate improved tools for more holistic governance.

“Furthermore, I argue that an expanded and nuanced conceptualisation of extinction could benefit the governance of Indigenous whaling, as reckoning with the reverberating effects (the threat of) extinction is already having on whaling communities can provide pathways for the IWC to develop and integrate improved tools for more holistic governance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Based on the two addresses, frameworks like ASW can benefit from expanding and complicating the concept of extinction and from implementing tools that recognise that extinction sits in complex webs of human and more-than-human relations.

“Based on the two addresses discussed here, I argue that frameworks like ASW can benefit from expanding and complicating the concept of extinction and from implementing tools that recognise that extinction sits in complex webs of human and more-than-human relations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Conflicts over whaling and similar debates can be used to protect and secure Indigenous futures.

“But they can, too, be used to protect and secure Indigenous futures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

How environmental governance regimes define extinction - what it means and for whom - contributes to the wider dynamics of Indigenous self-determination and sovereignty.

“In the wider perspective, how environmental governance regimes define extinction – what it means and for whom – also contributes to the wider dynamics of Indigenous self-determination and sovereignty.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Double death is "the unmaking of country, unravelling the work of generation upon generation of living beings; cascades of death that curtail the future and unmake the living presence of the past. The death of temporal, fleshy, metabolic relationships across generations and species".

“She defines double death as “the unmaking of country, unravelling the work of generation upon generation of living beings; cascades of death that curtail the future and unmake the living presence of the past. The death of temporal, fleshy, metabolic relationships across generations and species” (Bird, 2014).”

• cites Bird, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Extinction involves far more than biodiversity in the narrow sense; it also puts at stake human and more-than-human ways of life, mourning, livelihoods, and cultural and religious worlds.

“far more than ‘biodiversity’ - at least in the narrow sense that the term is often used - is at stake in extinction: human and more-than human ways of life, ways of mourning and being with others, even livelihoods and diverse cultural and religious worlds are often drawn into the fray as species move towards, and then beyond, the edge of extinction” (Van Dooren, 2014:7–8).”

• cites Van Dooren, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Given adequate weight and consideration, testimonies such as those analysed can improve the understanding of how extinctions are experienced in the here and now, and how they already work to modify, disrupt and sever long-standing and mutually held relations.

“Through its analysis, this article illustrates that given adequate weight and consideration, testimonies such as these can improve the understanding of how extinctions are experienced in the here and now, and how they already work to modify, disrupt and sever long-standing and mutually held relations.”

May combine two claims.

The whalers' statements concretise that the loss stemming from extinction is not only felt in the immediate loss of livelihoods and material practices, but in the loss of continuity and the sense of belonging gained through multigenerational and ancestral pasts that have been intertwined with bowheads.

“The whalers’ statements concretise that the loss stemming from extinction is not only felt in the immediate loss of livelihoods and material practices, but in the loss of continuity and the sense of belonging gained through multigenerational (and ancestral) pasts that have, up until now, been intertwined with bowheads.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

For the whalers, the threat of bowhead extinction poses the threat of a multidimensional process of loss.

“For the whalers, the threat of bowhead extinction poses the threat of a multidimensional process of loss.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The governance of Indigenous whaling has improved significantly in the past four decades in representational politics and collaboration with Indigenous communities.

“Although the governance of Indigenous whaling has improved significantly in the past four decades when it comes to representational politics and collaboration with Indigenous communities”

May combine two claims.

The presence of whales is directly connected to the reproduction of a relationship established since "time immemorial" that fosters cultural and food security and enables the passing down of knowledge and traditions.

“They illustrate how the presence of whales is directly connected to the reproduction of a relationship that has been established since “time immemorial” – one that fosters cultural and food security and enables the passing down of knowledge and traditions.”

May combine two claims.

In response to pushback on whaling, the IWC started work on an updated management regime in the early 1970s and shifted from industrial resource management towards marine conservation.

“In response to the pushback on whaling, the IWC started work on an updated management regime for whaling in the early 1970s. Shifting from a model of industrial resource management more towards marine conservation (Birnie, 1985; Kalland, 1993, 2009; Stone, 2001), the Commission also decided to take on a more active role in the management of Indigenous whaling practices.”

• cites Birnie, 1985Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kalland, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Stone, 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.