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Beyond Visualization: Remote Sensing Applications in Prehispanic Settlements to Understand Ancient Anthropogenic Land Use and Occupation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia
Open accessAbstract
Archaeology is increasingly employing remote sensing techniques such as airborne lidar (light detection and ranging), terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), and photogrammetry in tropical environments where dense vegetation hinders to a great extent the ability to understand the scope of ancient landscape modification. These technologies have enabled archaeologists to develop sophisticated analyses that overturn traditional misconceptions of tropical ecologies and the human groups that have inhabited them in the long term. This article presents new data on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia that reveals the extent to which its ancient societies transformed this landscape, which is frequently thought of as pristine. By recursively integrating remote sensing and archaeology, this study contributes to interdisciplinary scholarship examining ancient land use and occupation in densely forested contexts.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study integrates airborne lidar, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), and photogrammetry to show that prehispanic Tairona societies in Colombia’s Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta created extensive, interconnected anthropogenic landscapes rather than pristine forest. In the Upper Buritaca area, CART and random forest classifications estimate 96–112 ha of 671 ha as prehispanic land use and occupation, while site-scale work at Congo-Ciudad Antigua quantifies stone architecture and prospective use areas.
Key findings
- Airborne lidar over 671 ha in the Upper Buritaca basin produced prehispanic land use/occupation estimates of 14.55 ha for the threshold-based algorithm, 96 ha for CART, and 112 ha for random forest; CART and RF had a Jaccard similarity of 74.9%, versus less than 13% similarity between those two and the threshold-based algorithm. Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida alone encompassed at least 33 ha.
- Pilot ground-truthing visited 10 of 50 areas and confirmed them as archaeological sites; CART and RF accurately classified those confirmed features and Teyuna’s masonry architecture, suggesting parameter-rich algorithms better model prehispanic settlement and agriculture.
- At Congo-Ciudad Antigua, photogrammetry covered 216,973 m² and classified 2,080 m² of exposed stone areas, about 1% of the total site; TLS covered approximately 15,000 m² and classified 2,211 m² of stone areas, while a slope classification identified 5,772 m² between 0° and 25° as prospective prehispanic use and occupation.
- The results suggest a sprawling anthropogenic landscape with more than 250 settlements, extensive stone paths, and croplands, comparable to “low-density agricultural urbanism” models, with Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida as a probable regional center.
Methods
- Airborne lidar was collected in March 2019 over approximately 671 ha in the Upper Buritaca River basin, including Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and sites G-1, G-2, B-201, B-202, and B-203. Point clouds were classified into ground and vegetation, a 30 cm DTM was produced, and object-based image analysis used threshold-based, CART, and random forest classifications; a 2019 pilot ground-truthing season assessed 10 of 50 areas.
- At Congo-Ciudad Antigua in June 2019, UAV photogrammetry with DJI Mavic Pro and DJI Phantom 4 produced orthophotos and a 398,996,553-point cloud, processed in Pix4DMapper and ArcMap for supervised maximum likelihood classification. TLS used a FARO Focus M 70 for 86 sequential scans covering about 15,000 m², processed in Scene with cloth simulation filter for DTM production and vectorization of stone masonry.
Limitations
- The paper states that its accuracy assessment was nonsystematic and nonrepresentative, that only 10 of 50 areas were visited because of time and budget limits, and that further ground-truthing seasons are needed to assess algorithm accuracy systematically. It also notes that dense vegetation and 40–100 cm of sediment cover archaeological features, sometimes turning formerly flat areas into 10°–20° slopes, and that the broad category “prehispanic anthropogenic area” conflates settlement and agriculture.
- The paper states that TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain and may not be feasible for estimating land use and occupation at more extensive scales; the Congo scans did not cover the entire site. It also cautions that digital models should not be taken as true proxies of the ground surface and archaeological features.
- Evident from the text: the lidar analysis is limited to one basin, and the TLS and photogrammetry analyses are limited to one site, so broader regional generalizations remain preliminary.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
From the 216,973 m2 documented with drone photogrammetry, the binary classification between masonry architecture and vegetation areas yielded only 2,080 m2 of exposed stone areas, approximately 1% of the total site.
“From the 216,973 m 2 documented with the drone photogrammetry, the binary classification between masonry architecture and vegetation areas yielded only 2,080 m 2 of exposed stone areas, approximately 1% of the total site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Vectorization of the classification results allowed obtaining data on geometric attributes, such as perimeter and area, of each element of the archaeological structures.
“Moreover, the vectorization of the classification results allowed us to obtain data on geometric attributes, such as the perimeter and area of each of the elements of the archaeological structures (Figure 7).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A visual comparison confirms that OBIA classifications outperformed the manual pixel-based classification.
“A visual comparison of the classifications produced using the algorithms with the classification produced in 2019 confirms that those produced by using OBIA outperformed the manual pixel-based classification (Figure 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The threshold-based algorithm classified as anthropogenic the areas confirmed to be archaeological features during the 2019 pilot ground-truthing season.
“Moreover, it classified as anthropogenic the areas confirmed to be archaeological features during the 2019 pilot ground-truthing season, supporting the previous observation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Estimates for Congo-Ciudad Antigua accord with results from the Upper Buritaca area, where more than 5,000 m2 of 15,000 m2 correspond to prehispanic use and occupation.
“Estimates for Congo-Ciudad Antigua accord with results from the Upper Buritaca area, where more than 5,000 m 2 of 15,000 m 2 correspond to prehispanic use and occupation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Preliminary results in the Upper Buritaca area suggest a relatively intensive land use and occupation.
“Drawing on the archaeological knowledge collected in the past four decades and using airborne lidar data, the preliminary results in the Upper Buritaca area suggest a relatively intensive land use and occupation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Pedogenetic processes in the Upper Buritaca area resulted in sediments ranging from at least 40-100 cm that cover archaeological features.
“As Figure 3 illustrates, the pedogenetic processes in the Upper Buritaca area resulted in sediments ranging from at least 40-100 cm that cover archaeological features.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The TLS classification yielded a 130 m2 increase in stone areas compared to the photogrammetric classification.
“The 130 m 2 increase in stone areas (Table 1), which in comparison to the photogrammetric classification may not seem significant, offers the possibility of increasing the accuracy of the analysis by enabling the extraction of geometric area and perimeter attributes of the polygons corresponding to stone masonry (Figure 9).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The slope classification failed to capture paths and stairs that have slopes greater than 26°.
“Nevertheless, this classification failed to capture paths and stairs that have slopes greater than 26°.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
High vegetation between 627 and 1,015 m asl is prominent in Congo-Ciudad Antigua.
“Thus, high vegetation between 627 and 1,015 m asl is prominent (Figure 6).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Compared to the photogrammetry area (216,973 m2), the slope classification did not indicate a significant increase in the total areas of prehispanic land use and occupation: they corresponded to just 2.7% of the total flight.
“Furthermore, compared to the classification with the photogrammetry area (216,973 m 2 ), it did not indicate a significant increase in the total areas of prehispanic land use and occupation: they corresponded to just 2.7% of the total flight.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The classifications produced using threshold-based, CART, and RF algorithms yield a novel view of the Upper Buritaca river basin's ancient land use and occupation, depicting Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida as part of an intricate settlement system.
“The classifications produced using the threshold-based, CART, and RF algorithms (Figure 5) yield a novel view of the Upper Buritaca river basin's ancient land use and occupation: it depicts Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida as part of an intricate settlement system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Data collected through pilot ground-truthing strongly suggest that algorithms that consider a core of parameters, like CART and RF, are best suited to model the extent of prehispanic settlement and agriculture in the Upper Buritaca.
“For instance, the data collected through pilot ground-truthing strongly suggest that algorithms that consider a core of parameters, like CART and RF, are best suited to model the extent of prehispanic settlement and agriculture in the Upper Buritaca.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The threshold-based algorithm yielded a conservative estimate for prehispanic land use and occupation covering only 14.55 ha of the 671 ha research area.
“It yields a conservative estimate for prehispanic land use and occupation-covering only 14.55 ha of the 671 ha (the research area)-that fails to accurately represent the extent of ancient settlements and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca, such as Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida that alone encompassed at least 33 ha (Giraldo 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The CART and RF estimates seem to better represent prehispanic land use and occupation.
“CART and RF algorithms yielded more comprehensive estimates of 96 ha and 112 ha, respectively, which seems to better represent prehispanic land use and occupation (Figure 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The areas classified as prospective anthropogenic by the CART and RF algorithms, but not ground-truthed, correspond to actual prehispanic settlements or agricultural fields.
- Study design and conductreasoning
The scans of Congo-Ciudad Antigua did not cover the entire archaeological site because of its extension, complex topography, and fieldwork limitations.
“Because of the extension of Congo-Ciudad Antigua, its complex topography, and the limitations of the fieldwork, the scans we recorded did not cover the entire archaeological site.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Algorithms like CART and RF that consider a core of parameters (mean, Max.diff., area, length/width, compactness, and density) are best suited to model the extent of prehispanic settlement and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca.
“This strongly suggests that algorithms like CART and RF that consider a core of parameters-in this case, mean, Max.diff., area, length/width, compactness, and density-are best suited to model the extent of prehispanic settlement and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The areas classified as prospective anthropogenic by the CART and RF algorithms, but not ground-truthed, correspond to actual prehispanic settlements or agricultural fields.
- Premisecitation
Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida alone encompassed at least 33 ha.
“It yields a conservative estimate for prehispanic land use and occupation-covering only 14.55 ha of the 671 ha (the research area)-that fails to accurately represent the extent of ancient settlements and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca, such as Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida that alone encompassed at least 33 ha (Giraldo 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Giraldo 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
Most of these archaeological sites have not been revisited because of difficult access and remote locations.
“However, their descriptions only provide preliminary information, and most of these archaeological sites have not been revisited because of their difficult access and remote locations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The lack of significant increase in total areas of prehispanic land use and occupation was ultimately due to the orthophotograph area of the drone flight being 14 times larger than the TLS shot area.
“This result was ultimately due to the orthophotograph area of the drone flight being 14 times larger than the TLS shot area.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
Dense vegetation cover and its long-term growth and regrowth dynamics lessen the possibility of a clean identification of archaeological sites.
“Moreover, despite how diagnostic these variables are, the dense vegetation cover and its long-term growth and regrowth dynamics lessen the possibility of a clean identification of archaeological sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The ecologies constituting the north and northwestern slopes of the SNSM were shaped and reshaped by ancient societies between AD 100 and 1600.
“Furthermore, it provides a novel view of long-term human-environmental interaction in the SNSM that strongly suggests that the ecologies constituting its north and northwestern slopes were shaped and reshaped by ancient societies between AD 100 and 1600.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The lidar point cloud classification accurately discriminated bare earth from vegetation.
“The parameters were set to the specific conditions of the steep topography and dense canopy of the Upper Buritaca area, yielding a classification that accurately discriminated bare earth from vegetation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning
Previous accounts did not explore the extent to which Tairona settlements and agriculture transformed the massif in the long term.
“Although these accounts productively concentrated on environmental management and sustainability, they did not explore the extent to which Tairona settlements and agriculture transformed the massif in the long term, enabling certain ecological successions and sociopolitical processes that would not have occurred without this intensive and extensive landscape engineering.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
The comparison strongly suggests high accuracy of the three classifications because ground-truthing information was not incorporated as training data but only for assessment.
“Furthermore, this comparison also strongly suggests the high degree of accuracy of these three classifications because the ground-truthing information collected in 2019 was not incorporated as training data for the classifiers used in this article but only for assessment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The 130 m2 increase in stone areas offers the possibility of increasing the accuracy of the analysis by enabling the extraction of geometric area and perimeter attributes of the polygons corresponding to stone masonry.
“The 130 m 2 increase in stone areas (Table 1), which in comparison to the photogrammetric classification may not seem significant, offers the possibility of increasing the accuracy of the analysis by enabling the extraction of geometric area and perimeter attributes of the polygons corresponding to stone masonry (Figure 9).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Before European contact, Indigenous populations in the SNSM (AD 100-1600), grouped as Tairona, intensively transformed the northern and western slopes of the mountain range.
“Before European contact, the Indigenous populations inhabiting the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (AD 100-1600), commonly grouped by scholars under the general ethnonym Tairona, intensively transformed the northern and western slopes of this coastal mountain range located in northern Colombia that rises from sea level to 5,775 m asl and encompasses a vast diversity of ecosystems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Cadavid and Herrera 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Giraldo 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Groot de Maecha 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
Despite intensive occupation inferred from historical and archaeological reports, the data currently available are insufficient to understand the scope of land use and occupation of the SNSM.
“Despite the intensive occupation inferred from the historical and archaeological reports, the data currently available are insufficient to understand the scope of land use and occupation of the SNSM.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The results suggest that hybrid approaches, which integrate fieldwork knowledge and computing resources, offer an adequate methodology to study past anthropogenic landscape modifications in the research area.
“Moreover, the results suggest that hybrid approaches, which integrate fieldwork knowledge and computing resources, offer an adequate methodology to study past anthropogenic landscape modifications in the research area.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Recent research in Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida shows that construction of settlements in the upper ranges started as early as AD 400 in the Neguanje period.
“However, recent research in Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida shows that the construction of settlements in the upper ranges started as early as AD 400 in the Neguanje period (Giraldo 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Giraldo 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The threshold-based estimate fails to accurately represent the extent of ancient settlements and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca.
“It yields a conservative estimate for prehispanic land use and occupation-covering only 14.55 ha of the 671 ha (the research area)-that fails to accurately represent the extent of ancient settlements and agriculture at the Upper Buritaca, such as Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida that alone encompassed at least 33 ha (Giraldo 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The ancient population of the Upper Buritaca sustained itself through agricultural fields that are not limited to relatively flat areas.
- Interpretationreasoning
The threshold-based algorithm seems to largely ignore the agricultural fields that must have sustained the ancient population of the Upper Buritaca.
“For instance, the threshold-based algorithm seems to largely ignore the agricultural fields that must have sustained the ancient population of the Upper Buritaca.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The ancient population of the Upper Buritaca sustained itself through agricultural fields that are not limited to relatively flat areas.
- Interpretationreasoning
The difference in similarity was due to the parameters used to set up the algorithms.
“This difference was due to the parameters used to set up the algorithms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe scans encompassed an approximate extension of 15,000 m2 covering the central area, adjacent trails and stairs, and several sectors where slope gradient allowed TLS.
“Instead, the scans encompassed an approximate extension of 15,000 m 2 that covered the central area, its adjacent trails and stairs connecting it to the northern part of the site, and several sectors where the slope gradient allowed us to undertake TLS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataCART algorithm yielded an estimate of 96 ha and RF algorithm yielded an estimate of 112 ha for prehispanic land use and occupation.
“CART and RF algorithms yielded more comprehensive estimates of 96 ha and 112 ha, respectively, which seems to better represent prehispanic land use and occupation (Figure 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationThe use of TLS yields a classification that increases the accuracy and detail of the results achieved with the photogrammetry imagery and provides the opportunity to conduct architectural analyses.
“The use of TLS not only yields a classification that increases the accuracy and detail of the results achieved with the photogrammetry imagery but also provides the opportunity to conduct architectural analyses such as those recently undertaken in other regions of the Andes (Guengerich 2014;Kosiba and Bauer 2013), Mesoamerica (Garrison et al. 2016;Weber and Powis 2014), and the Near East (Arav et”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe photogrammetric model of Congo-Ciudad Antigua enabled analyses at the architectural and micro-basin scales, allowing differentiation, definition, and measurement of stones corresponding to masonry architecture and green areas corresponding to vegetation through RGB segmentation.
“The photogrammetric model of Congo-Ciudad Antigua enabled analyses at the architectural and micro-basin scales, by which it was possible to differentiate, define, and measure stones that correspond to masonry architecture and green areas corresponding to vegetation through RGB segmentation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone givenIn some cases, these sediments can turn 0°< 10° flat areas into slightly steeper slopes ranging from 10° to 20°.
“In some cases, these sediments can turn 0°< 10° flat areas into slightly steeper slopes ranging from 10° to 20° (see the section on methods in Supplemental Text 1 for a comprehensive description of these variables).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe Jaccard Similarity Index between CART and RF classifications was 74.9%, contrasting with less than 13% similarity between those two and the threshold-based algorithm.
“We obtained a similarity index of 74.9% between the classifications yielded using the CART and RF algorithms, which contrasts with less than 13% of similarity between those two and the threshold-based algorithm.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAncient societies in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta extensively transformed/engineered this landscape before the European invasion, contrary to views of it as pristine.
“This article presents new data on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia that reveals the extent to which its ancient societies transformed this landscape, which is frequently thought of as pristine.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“In this article we present an unprecedented view of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta that reveals the extent to which its ancient societies engineered this landscape before the European invasion.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe exposed stone areas corresponded to surfaces visible only in cleared, nonforested areas encompassing the central sector, some terraces located in the northern part of the site, and certain stone paved paths interconnecting them.
“This corresponded to the surfaces visible only in cleared, nonforested areas encompassing the central sector, some terraces located in the northern part of the site, and certain stone paved paths interconnecting them (Figure 9).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe threshold-based algorithm accurately identified the stone terraces of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida, suggesting it is well suited to classify these archaeological features as prospective areas of ancient use and occupation.
“Figure 5 illustrates that the threshold-based algorithm accurately identified the stone terraces of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida, suggesting that it is well suited to classify these archaeological features as prospective areas of ancient use and occupation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe classification of point clouds into ground points and out-of-ground points obtained a precise segmentation of the settlement that significantly contributed to the accuracy of the rendering of the archaeological site and enhanced the visualization of its stone masonry architecture.
“The point clouds were classified into”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAn RGB orthophotograph classification using TLS data revealed 2,211 m2 of stone areas, mainly the terraces at 870, 874, 924 and 927 m asl, plus the stone retaining walls, stairs, and paths leading to the upper part of the settlement.
“Moreover, an RGB orthophotograph classification using TLS data (similar to the foregoing binary classification) revealed 2,211 m 2 of stone areas, which are mainly the terraces at 870, 874, 924 and 927 m asl, plus the stone retaining walls, stairs, and paths leading to the upper part of the settlement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe similarity index of the classification produced with CART and RF is relatively high but not sufficiently so as to deem an answer trivial.
“Because the similarity index of the classification produced with CART and RF is relatively high but not sufficiently so as to deem an answer trivial, further ground-truthing seasons are needed to assess these algorithms' accuracy systematically.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe slope classification yielded a considerable increase compared to the previous classification for prospective occupation and use area: of the total 15,000 m2 scanned using TLS, 5,772 m2 corresponded to areas between 0° and 25°.
“This yielded a considerable increase compared to the previous classification for the prospective occupation and use area: of the total 15,000 m 2 scanned using TLS, 5,772 m 2 corresponded to areas between 0° and 25° (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataIn Congo-Ciudad Antigua, the percentage of point cloud classification obtained was 0.35% ground, 0.31% low vegetation, 97.7% high vegetation, 1.1% building, and 0.45% stone path surface.
“In Congo-Ciudad Antigua the percentage of point cloud classification obtained was 0.35% ground, 0.31% low vegetation, 97.7% high vegetation, 1.1% building, and 0.45% stone path surface.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe lidar scanned landscape has a higher degree of definition than the general point cloud obtained from photogrammetry, producing a detailed topographic reconstruction that reached areas below the tree canopy.
“Overall, the degree of definition of the lidar scanned landscape is higher than that of the general point cloud obtained from photogrammetry, producing a detailed topographic reconstruction that reached areas below the tree canopy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationOther villages were established alongside riverbanks on relatively flat areas, bays and inlets, flat coastal areas, and deeper canyon locations with more accessible transit roads for exchange and communication.
“Other villages were established alongside riverbanks on relatively flat areas, bays and inlets, flat coastal areas, and deeper canyon locations with more accessible transit roads for exchange and communication (Giraldo 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Giraldo 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThe category prehispanic anthropogenic area is very broad, with the limitation of conflating two distinctive, yet closely related, kinds of practices: settlement patterns or land occupation and agriculture or land use.
“However, this category is very broad, with the limitation of conflating two distinctive, yet closely related, kinds of practices: (1) settlement patterns or land occupation and (2) agriculture or land use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationcitationThe estimates for the Upper Buritaca area range from 96 to 112 ha of the 671 ha, and appear comparable to low-density agricultural urbanism models such as those observed in Mesoamerica and Southeast Asia.
“The estimates, which range from 96 to 112 ha of the 671 ha, appear to be comparable to”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Fletcher 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Fletcher 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Chase and Chase 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Study design and conductnone givenThe lead author conducted a pilot ground-truthing field season in 2019 to assess the accuracy of a preliminary pixel-based unsupervised classification derived from the airborne lidar dataset.
“This article's lead author Daniel Rodríguez Osorio conducted a pilot ground-truthing field season in 2019 to assess the accuracy of a preliminary pixel-based unsupervised classification that he derived from the airborne lidar dataset.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe threshold-based classification seems to overlook that pedogenetic processes produced sediments covering archaeological features, creating steeper surfaces that would have been flat in prehispanic times, increasing the possibility of misclassification.
“However, this classification seems to overlook that pedogenetic processes in the research area produced sediments that cover archaeological features, which created steeper surfaces that would have been flat in prehispanic times, thereby increasing the possibility of misclassification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataThe accuracy assessment was nonsystematic and nonrepresentative.
“Next, we undertook a nonsystematic and nonrepresentative accuracy assessment that used data from a pilot ground-truthing season that Rodríguez Osorio conducted (Figure 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe ancient Tairona societies are better understood as sprawling settlements over vast extensions of the massif, combined with abundant cultivable fields where different types of primary forest throughout a wide range of altitudes were profoundly altered.
“With this study, we shed a different light on this relationship within this complex landscape, moving to a concept of sprawling settlements over vast extensions of the massif, combined with abundant cultivable fields where different types of primary forest throughout a wide range of altitudes were profoundly altered.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenThe prehispanic societies that lived on the SNSM for more than 1,500 years extensively transformed the landscape with a combination of more than 250 settlements, hundreds of stone paved paths that connected these sites, and extensive croplands.
“The prehispanic societies that lived on the SNSM for more than 1,500 years extensively transformed the landscape with a combination of more than 250 settlements, hundreds of stone paved paths that connected these sites, and extensive croplands.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The prehispanic societies lived on the SNSM for more than 1,500 years.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe findings allow better understanding and quantification of the wider settlement footprint within each watershed and the approximate area required to support habitation.
“These findings allow us to better understand and quantify the wider settlement footprint within each watershed and the approximate area required to support habitation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningGiven that TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain of the SNSM, its use for estimating land use and occupation at a more extensive scale may not be feasible.
“Given that TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain of the SNSM, however, its use for estimating land use and occupation at a more extensive scale may not be feasible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain of the SNSM.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataThe DTM and hillshade models accurately render the topography of the research area, suggesting that the slope gradient model is best suited for visualizing archaeological features in the Upper Buritaca area.
“Figure 2 illustrates how the DTM and hillshade models accurately render the topography of the research area, suggesting that the slope gradient model is best suited for visualizing archaeological features in the Upper Buritaca area.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe view integrates Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and prospective anthropogenic areas into a settlement system that needs further study to determine whether it corresponded to the single regional center of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida or a compound of interconnected settlements.
“This view integrates Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and the prospective anthropogenic areas into a settlement system that needs further study to determine whether it corresponded to the single regional center of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida or a compound of interconnected settlements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The areas classified as prospective anthropogenic by the CART and RF algorithms, but not ground-truthed, correspond to actual prehispanic settlements or agricultural fields.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisereasoningThis scholarship is limited to a handful of archaeological sites and does not account for broader patterns or interconnections.
“Although this scholarship sheds new light on how the ancient population of the SNSM built a political urban landscape, it is limited to a handful of archaeological sites and, as a result, does not account for broader patterns or interconnections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThese two algorithms show a sprawling anthropogenic ancient landscape that was not limited to Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and its immediate area but had a broader and more extensive interconnected settlement system, with this site as its probable regional center.
“Like colonial descriptions and data from different archaeological surveys at the SNSM, these two algorithms show a sprawling anthropogenic ancient landscape that was not limited to Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and its immediate area but had a broader and more extensive interconnected settlement system, with this site as its probable regional center.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The areas classified as prospective anthropogenic by the CART and RF algorithms, but not ground-truthed, correspond to actual prehispanic settlements or agricultural fields.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationPhotogrammetry enables accurate documentation of archaeological sites with unprecedented quality at relatively low cost.
“Photogrammetry is a transformative practice in the development of contemporary archaeology, enabling accurate documentation of archaeological sites with unprecedented quality at a relatively low cost (Jeong et al. 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jeong et al. 2018 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataBoth algorithms accurately classified as anthropogenic those areas that the pilot ground-truthing season confirmed to be archaeological features, as well as identifying the masonry architecture of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida.
“Both algorithms accurately classified as anthropogenic those areas that the pilot ground-truthing season confirmed to be archaeological features, as well as identifying the masonry architecture of Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe study reveals a sprawling anthropogenic ancient landscape in which sites often interpreted as regional centers become part of borderless settlement systems that intensively transformed northern Colombia.
“We use airborne lidar and integrate TLS and photogrammetry in two analogous archaeological sites to model the prospective location of settlements and cultivable areas underneath the dense canopy, revealing a sprawling anthropogenic ancient landscape in which sites often interpreted as regional centers become part of borderless settlement systems that intensively transformed this region of northern”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningExamining only the slope gradient fails to take into account that prehispanic land use and occupation were not limited exclusively to relatively flat areas and did not only yield such kinds of landscape transformation.
“Furthermore, examining only the slope gradient fails to take into account that prehispanic land use and occupation were not limited exclusively to relatively flat areas and did not only yield such kinds of landscape transformation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The ancient population of the Upper Buritaca sustained itself through agricultural fields that are not limited to relatively flat areas.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductreasoningBecause of time and budget limitations, only 10 of 50 areas were visited, confirming that they correspond to archaeological sites.
“Because of time and budget limitations, we visited only 10 of 50 areas, confirming that they correspond to archaeological sites, as Figure 4 illustrates.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The areas classified as prospective anthropogenic by the CART and RF algorithms, but not ground-truthed, correspond to actual prehispanic settlements or agricultural fields.
“CART and RF algorithms yielded more comprehensive estimates of 96 ha and 112 ha, respectively, which seems to better represent prehispanic land use and occupation (Figure 5).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The ancient population of the Upper Buritaca sustained itself through agricultural fields that are not limited to relatively flat areas.
“For instance, the threshold-based algorithm seems to largely ignore the agricultural fields that must have sustained the ancient population of the Upper Buritaca.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teyuna-Ciudad Perdida and Congo-Ciudad Antigua are analogous archaeological sites.
“We use airborne lidar and integrate TLS and photogrammetry in two analogous archaeological sites to model the prospective location of settlements and cultivable areas underneath the dense canopy, revealing a sprawling anthropogenic ancient landscape in which sites often interpreted as regional centers become part of borderless settlement systems that intensively transformed this region of northern”
The paper relies on this without support.
TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain of the SNSM.
“Given that TLS is time-consuming and costly in the rough terrain of the SNSM, however, its use for estimating land use and occupation at a more extensive scale may not be feasible.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The prehispanic societies lived on the SNSM for more than 1,500 years.
“The prehispanic societies that lived on the SNSM for more than 1,500 years extensively transformed the landscape with a combination of more than 250 settlements, hundreds of stone paved paths that connected these sites, and extensive croplands.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The largest known settlement is Teyuna, occupied in the Neguanje period from around 400 CE; during the Tairona period it expanded to 33 ha.
“The largest known settlement is Teyuna (also known as Ciudad Perdida or Buritaca-200), occupied in the Neguanje period from around 400 CE26. During the Tairona period, it expanded to a settlement of 33 ha with typical regional architecture24,26,61.”
From Ecological legacies of pre-columbian settlements evident in palm clusters of neotropical mountain forests (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
Settlements occur on ridgelines, valley slopes, riverbanks, bays, inlets, flat coastal areas, and deeper canyons.
“Settlements occur on ridgelines, valley slopes24,26,54, riverbanks, bays, inlets, flat coastal areas, and deeper canyons26,55.”
From Ecological legacies of pre-columbian settlements evident in palm clusters of neotropical mountain forests (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
Human occupation in the SNSM is dated from 200 to 1600 CE and is divided into Neguanje (200-1100 CE) and Tairona (1100-1600 CE) periods.
“Human occupation, dated from 200 to 1600 CE24,26, is divided into two archaeological periods: Neguanje (200–1100 CE) and Tairona (1100–1600 CE).”
From Ecological legacies of pre-columbian settlements evident in palm clusters of neotropical mountain forests (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
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Assessing Human Settlement Sprawl in Mexico via Remote Sensing and Deep Learning
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Metadata
- Authors
- Rodríguez Osorio, D., Giraldo, S., Mazuera, E., Burbano, A., & Figueredo, E.
- Affiliations
- Universidad Santo Tomás (CO)
- Venue
- Latin American Antiquity
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2023-01-27
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 821-841
- ISSN
- 1045-6635 (ISSN-L)
- 2325-5080
- OpenAlex
- W4318192629
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 3.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Latin American Antiquity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Wenner-Gren Foundation (WIF-270)
- National Geographic Society
- University of Minnesota
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Remote Sensing and Land Use
- Keywords
- pre-Hispanic settlement, landscape modification, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, tropical archaeology, airborne laser scanning, terrestrial laser scanning, photogrammetry, ancient occupation
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