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Cited by 6Avian ecology and behaviorWildlife Ecology and ConservationWildlife Conservation and Criminology Analyses

Using community-based interviews to determine population size, distribution and nest site characteristics of Pallas's fish eagle in north-east Bangladesh

Open access
Chowdhury, Sayam U., Foysal, Mohammod, Khan, Nazim Uddin·2022·Oryx
DOI 10.1017/s0030605321000314
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Abstract

Pallas's fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus was recategorized from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2017 because of evidence that there is only a single population, which is declining as a result of continuous, widespread loss and degradation of freshwater wetlands. To determine the species’ status in Bangladesh, we conducted a large-scale community-based interview survey in north-east Bangladesh in 2017–2020. We also examined nest site habitat characteristics through field surveys and remotely sensed data. We conducted a total of 955 interviews in an area of 4,150 km 2, through which we were able to determine the presence of 53 breeding pairs at a mean density of 1.2 nests per 100 km 2. There was a higher nest density (3.7–4.8 nests per 100 km 2) in some locations, which we identify as priority conservation areas. The majority of nests (62.2%) were close together and on tall trees with an open canopy structure. Nests were located within or close to (< 100 m) human settlements, and within 500 m of wetlands and rivers. Felling of nest trees, removal of nests by local people and loss of permanent wetlands (14.6% during 2010–2020) appeared to be the main threats. High nesting density in our study area suggests that the freshwater wetlands in north-east Bangladesh possibly hold the largest population of Pallas's fish eagle globally.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In north-east Bangladesh, community-based interviews and field verification identified 53 active Pallas's fish eagle nests, suggesting the region may hold the largest global population of the species. Nesting was clustered in tall trees near wetlands and human settlements, with wetland loss and nest-tree felling as main threats.

Key findings

  • Across 955 interviews in 4,150 km² during 2017–2020, 830 respondents (87%) correctly identified Pallas's fish eagle; 238 (24.9%) reported an active nest location, of which 228 (95.8%) were verified. The survey found 53 active nests, 106 adults and 38 nestlings, at a mean density of 1.2 nests per 100 km².
  • Nests were aggregated: 62.3% were within 3 km of one or more nests, and four clusters contained 78% of nests (n = 41). Tanguar Haor had the highest density (4.8 nests per 100 km², n = 23), followed by Chhatak (3.7 nests per 100 km², n = 9).
  • Of 53 nests, 47 (88.6%) were in trees; Bombax ceiba was most used (14 nests, 26.4%), then Samanea saman (7 nests, 13.2%), and 6 nests (11.3%) were on telecommunication towers. Mean nest-tree height was 13.5 ± SD 4.4 m and mean circumference at breast height was 195 ± SD 81 cm. Most nests (83%) were within 100 m of human settlements; 62% were within 500 m of rivers and 49% within 500 m of wetlands.
  • Threats included felling of nest trees (18% of respondents), removal of nests by local people (2.3% of respondents; Table 1 reports 2.2%), and nestling falls during storms (26.6% of respondents; Table 1 reports 25.4%). Permanent wetlands declined by 14.6% during 2010–2020 in the abstract (14.7% in the Discussion). Among 830 correct identifiers, 73% perceived a decline, 16% did not know/no change, and 11% perceived an increase.

Methods

  • Semi-structured community-based interviews were conducted in Bangla with randomly selected respondents, using colour photographs and breeding-call recordings for species identification. A 3 × 3 km grid was used across the study area, yielding 525 cells, of which 23 were excluded as open water without villages/households; 502 cells were surveyed with 1–3 interviews per cell. All reported nest locations were visited, and nests were recorded as occupied only when an incubating adult or nestlings were found.
  • At occupied nests, the authors recorded GPS location, nest-tree species, height, circumference at breast height, crown density, and distances to nearest human settlement, road, wetland and river. These were compared with an equal number of randomly chosen trees 200 m from the nest tree in a random direction. Habitat characteristics were measured within a 5-km radius around each nest using Landsat images from February 2010 and 2020 and QGIS, and compared with 53 random points at least 5 km apart.
  • Analyses used generalized linear models with binomial error distribution and logit link to test nest presence versus random sites, and Spatstat in R to analyse local spatial association of nests. Priority conservation areas were defined as clusters where 3-km-radius circles around four or more nest sites overlapped.

Limitations

  • The paper states that interview-based data can have potential errors and biases in collection, interpretation and quantification, especially when gathered by untrained observers or when the study requires identification of less well-known species; the authors argue Pallas's fish eagle is well known and identifiable in the study area, but this remains a stated limitation of the method.
  • The paper states that regression models did not find a correlation with surrounding habitat (e.g. human settlements), possibly because habitat characteristics around nest sites were uniform and because random sites were only 200 m from nests; it recommends future studies at larger spatial scales and with random sites further away.
  • The paper states that reasons behind the decline or shift of 47 nests could not be determined, and that it remains unclear what happens to offspring because no evidence was found of offspring reoccupying breeding areas. Evident from the text: the population estimate relies on interview reports and nest counts rather than marking, telemetry or a complete census, and the reported wetland loss figure differs between the abstract (14.6%) and Discussion (14.7%).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0030605321000314

Cites

18 of 18 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 32 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Pallas's fish eagle showed a positive association with waterbodies.

    “We confirmed a positive association between the Pallas's fish eagle and waterbodies (Fig. ), and, unlike most previous studies, we quantified the distances between eagle nest sites and wetland areas (Naoroji, ; Sourav et al., ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Human activities such as agriculture were recorded in the vicinity of 96% of all nests (range 1-200 m; n=53).

    “Similarly, human activities such as agriculture were recorded in the vicinity of % of all nests (range - m; n = )”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    49% of nests were within 500 m of wetlands.

    “% (n = ) of nests were within  m of rivers (mean distance , ± SD , m, n = ) and wetlands (mean distance  ± SD  m, n = ), respectively (Table ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A small number (2.3%) of respondents reported that the owner of a nest tree destroyed Pallas's fish eagle nests in retaliation for predation on domestic poultry chicks and ducklings by adult eagles.

    “A small number (.%) of respondents reported that the owner of a nest tree destroyed Pallas's fish eagle nests in retaliation for predation on domestic poultry chicks and ducklings by adult eagles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Respondents' reports of population decline and threats are accurate enough to infer actual population trends and main threats.
  • Findingown data

    The majority of nests (62.2%) were close together.

    “The majority of nests (.%) were close together”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall mean nest density was 1.2 nests per 100 km2, with four nest clusters containing 78% of all nests (n = 41); the Tanguar Haor cluster had the highest nest density (4.8 nests per 100 km2, n = 23), followed by the Chhatak cluster (3.7 nests per 100 km2, n = 9).

    “The overall mean nest density was . nests per  km  , with four nest clusters (% of all nests, n = ); Tanguar Haor cluster (Fig. ) had the highest nest density (. nests per  km  , n = ), followed by Chhatak cluster (. nests per  km  , n = ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most (83%) nests were located within 100 m of human settlements, with a mean distance of 71 ± SD 189 m (range 1-311 m; n=53).

    “Most (%) nests were located within  m of human settlements (χ  = .,df = , P , .), with a mean distance of  ± SD  m (range - m; n = ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The majority of nests were on tall trees with an open canopy structure.

    “and on tall trees with an open canopy structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Eighteen per cent of respondents mentioned that nest trees in their area had been cut down and the eagles did not return to nest in subsequent years, except for 12 cases when a nest was re-built in a nearby tree.

    “Eighteen per cent of the  respondents mentioned that nest trees in their area had been cut down and the eagles did not return to nest in subsequent years, except for  cases when a nest was re-built in a nearby tree.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Respondents' reports of population decline and threats are accurate enough to infer actual population trends and main threats.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The most commonly used tree species were Bombax ceiba with 14 nests (26.4%) and Samanea saman with seven nests (13.2%).

    “The most commonly used tree species were the red silk cotton tree Bombax ceiba with  nests (.%) and the rain tree Samanea saman with seven nests (.%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Among respondents who identified Pallas's fish eagle correctly, 73% indicated that the population may have declined in the previous 20 years, 16% did not know, and 11% indicated an increase in the number of breeding pairs.

    “Of the  respondents who identified Pallas's fish eagle correctly, % indicated that in the previous  years the population may have declined, % did not know and only % indicated an increase in the number of breeding pairs (Table ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Respondents' reports of population decline and threats are accurate enough to infer actual population trends and main threats.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 53 active nests were distributed across 10 subdistricts of Sunamganj and Netrokona districts in north-east Bangladesh, with the maximum number in Tahirpur subdistrict (22.6%, n=12).

    “The  active Pallas's fish eagle nests were distributed across a total of  subdistricts of Sunamganj and Netrokona districts in north-east Bangladesh, with the maximum number of nests located in Tahirpur subdistrict (.%, n = ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of 47 nest trees, 46.8% had an open canopy, 42.5% a partially open canopy, and 10.6% a partially dense canopy.

    “Of the  nest trees, .% had an open, .% a partially open and .% a partially dense canopy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Presence of occupied Pallas's fish eagle nests was positively associated with permanent wetlands, agricultural fields, paddy fields, and other land use within a 5-km radius of nest sites.

    “Permanent wetlands 0.48 0.16 3.055 0.0023* Agricultural fields 0.25 0.12 1.989 0.0467* Paddy fields 0.27 0.12 2.290 0.0220* Other land use 0.25 0.12 2.074 0.0381*”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Interview surveys identified many previously unknown nests and provided new evidence on the species' continued decline and threats.

    “Our interview surveys identified many previously unknown nests and provided new evidence on the species' continued decline and threats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The protected area (9,500 ha) covers only 20% of the Tanguar Haor eagle nest cluster, meaning most Pallas's fish eagle nests are located outside the only protected area in Sunamganj district.

    “The protected area (, ha), however, covers only % of the Tanguar Haor eagle nest cluster (Fig. ), meaning most of Pallas's fish eagle nests are located outside the only protected area in Sunamganj district.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The home range size of large raptors is closely related to food availability, especially during the breeding season when more resources are required to feed the young.

    “The home range size of large raptors is closely related to food availability, especially during the breeding season when more resources are required to feed the young (Newton, ; Hardey, ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Newton, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hardey, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Most nests were within or close to (<100 m) human settlements or roads, suggesting the species is relatively tolerant of human presence and associated disturbance.

    “Most nests were within or close to (,  m) human settlements or roads, suggesting the species is relatively tolerant of human presence and associated disturbance (Supplementary Fig. ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pallas's fish eagle is one of the largest eagles in the Indian subcontinent and is well known to people in north-east Bangladesh because of its loud and frequent calls during the breeding season.

    “Pallas's fish eagle is one of the largest eagles in the Indian subcontinent (Naoroji, ) and well known to people in north-east Bangladesh because of its loud and frequent calls during the breeding season (Chowdhury, ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Naoroji, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Chowdhury, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Pallas's fish eagle was accurately identified by the majority of respondents, suggesting that an interview-based survey could be used in other parts of the species' range to determine population size and assess threats.

    “Pallas's fish eagle was accurately identified by the majority of respondents, suggesting that an interview-based survey could be used in other parts of the species' range to determine population size and assess threats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pallas's fish eagle was recategorized from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2017, with a global population estimate of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals.

    “In  the species was recategorized from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with a global population estimate of ,-, mature individuals (BirdLife International, ).”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Pallas's fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus was recategorized from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in  because of evidence that there is only a single population, which is declining as a result of continuous, widespread loss and degradation of freshwater wetlands.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites BirdLife International, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Satellite tracking of three juvenile Pallas's fish eagles showed that mean home range in winter is 38.9 ± SD 43.8 km2, but juveniles appear to spend most of the first winter within 1 km of the nest location.

    “Satellite tracking of three juvenile Pallas's fish eagles has shown that the mean home range in winter is . ± SD . km  but juveniles appear to spend most of the first winter within  km of the nest location (Steele, ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steele, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The IUCN reassessment was primarily due to continuous and widespread loss, degradation and disturbance of freshwater wetlands throughout the species' range, and new evidence that there is only a single migratory population.

    “The reason for this reassessment was primarily the continuous and widespread loss, degradation and disturbance of freshwater wetlands throughout the species' range, and new evidence that there is only a single, migratory population (Gilbert et al., ; Steele, ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert et al., 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Steele, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of correlation with surrounding habitat may be because of uniform habitat characteristics around the nest sites and the short distance (200 m) between nest and random sites.

    “possibly because of the uniform habitat characteristics around the nest sites and short distance ( m) between nest and random sites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These breeding pairs relocated or were extirpated in the previous 20 years.

    “These breeding pairs relocated or were extirpated in the previous  years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Respondents' reports of population decline and threats are accurate enough to infer actual population trends and main threats.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    The higher-density locations are priority conservation areas.

    “which we identify as priority conservation areas”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Loss and degradation of wetlands, felling of nesting trees, shortage of prey, uncontrolled spread of water hyacinth, and use of pesticides are principal causes of the decline of Pallas's fish eagle.

    “The loss and degradation of wetlands, felling of nesting trees, shortage of prey, uncontrolled spread of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and the use of pesticides have been identified as principal causes of the decline of Pallas's fish eagle (BirdLife International, ; Naoroji, ; Rahmani et al., ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites BirdLife International, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Naoroji, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rahmani et al., 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two satellite-tagged juvenile Pallas's fish eagles did not return to their natal territory in India; one migrated to Myanmar and the signal of the other was lost.

    “However, two satellitetagged juveniles did not return to their natal territory in India; one migrated to Myanmar and the signal of the other was lost (Steele, ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steele, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Site fidelity and the overall positive attitude of local communities could benefit the conservation of Pallas's fish eagle, although species with strong site fidelity may also be more vulnerable to habitat degradation.

    “This site fidelity and the overall positive attitude of local communities could benefit the conservation of Pallas's fish eagle, although species with strong site fidelity may also be more vulnerable to habitat degradation (Warkentin & Hernández, ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Warkentin & Hernández, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A pair of Pallas's fish eagles bred in Hail Haor, Moulovibazar district, during 2010-2012, but the nesting tree was felled and the area was abandoned in subsequent years.

    “These include a pair that bred in Hail Haor, Moulovibazar district, in the north-east, during -, but the nesting tree was felled and the area was abandoned in subsequent years (SUC, pers.obs., ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites SUC, pers.obs., 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The aggregation of Pallas's fish eagle nests is possibly driven by availability of food resources and suitable nest trees, which in the study area are located primarily in and around villages.

    “This aggregation is possibly driven by availability of food resources and suitable nest trees (Newton, ), which in the study area are located primarily in and around villages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Newton, 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study area holds the most important, and possibly the only, permanent breeding population of Pallas's fish eagle in Bangladesh.

    “The lack of breeding records from outside our study area indicates that the area holds the most important, and possibly the only, permanent breeding population in the country.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The lack of breeding records outside the study area reflects absence of permanent breeding populations rather than under-recording.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Increased domestic fowl populations in the agro-ecological landscapes of north-east Bangladesh may have led to increasing negative interactions between local people and Pallas's fish eagles.

    “Increased domestic fowl populations (Sarkar et al., ) in the agro-ecological landscapes of north-east Bangladesh may have led to increasing negative interactions between local people and Pallas's fish eagles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sarkar et al., 

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

28 of 28

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 53 active nests detected represent the total number of breeding pairs in the study area, with one active nest per breeding pair.

    “we were able to determine the presence of  breeding pairs”
    “We found a total of  active Pallas's fish eagle nests within the study area (Fig. ), with  adults and  nestlings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Respondents' reports of population decline and threats are accurate enough to infer actual population trends and main threats.

    “Of the  respondents who identified Pallas's fish eagle correctly, % indicated that in the previous  years the population may have declined, % did not know and only % indicated an increase in the number of breeding pairs (Table ).”
    “Felling of nest trees, removal of nests by local people and loss of permanent wetlands (.% during -) appeared to be the main threats.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Landsat-based land-use classification accurately quantifies permanent wetland loss.

    “Using Landsat satellite images from February  and  (USGS, ) and the semi-automatic classification plugin in QGIS, we defined four broad land-use categories”
    “loss of permanent wetlands (.% during -)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The lack of breeding records outside the study area reflects absence of permanent breeding populations rather than under-recording.

    “The lack of breeding records from outside our study area indicates that the area holds the most important, and possibly the only, permanent breeding population in the country.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Interviewees accurately recalled and reported historical disappearances of breeding pairs since the early 2000s.

    “Our community-based interviews suggested that  breeding pairs have disappeared from the area since the early s.”
5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 19 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 14

  1. Rahmani, 2012, Threatened Birds of India: Their Conservation Requirements
  2. Cripps, 1878, First list of the birds of Fureedpore, eastern Bengal, Stray Feathers, 7, 238
  3. 2016, QGIS Geographic Information System
  4. Hardey, 2006, Raptors: A Field Guide to Survey and Monitoring
  5. Salauddin, 2011, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Water and Flood Management
  6. Siddiqui, 2008, Encyclopaedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh, Vol. 26: Birds
  7. Ahmed, 2009, Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh, Vol. 9. Angiosperms: Dicotyledons (Magnoliaceae-Punicaceae)
  8. 2016, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
  9. Naher, 2009, Breeding of Pallas's fish eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), an endangered bird of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Journal of Zoology, 37, 95
  10. Sourav, 2011, Pallas's fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh, Birding ASIA, 16, 101
  11. 2019, The 6th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity
  12. Steele, M.L. (2017) Where in the world are Pallas's fish eagles? Migration and ecology of Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Asia. PhD thesis, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA.
  13. Geisen, 2000, Management Plan for Tanguar Haor, Bangladesh. Achieving Community-Based Sustainable Use of Wetland Resources
  14. 2007, Designating Ramsar Sites: The Strategic Framework and Guidelines for the Future Development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance. Ramsar Handbooks for the Wise Use of Wetlands

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Authors
Chowdhury, S. U., Foysal, M., & Khan, N. U.
Corresponding author
Chowdhury, Sayam U.
ORCID
Chowdhury, Sayam U.
Venue
Oryx
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2021-12-20
Volume
56
Issue
4
Pages
627-635
ISSN
  • 0030-6053 (ISSN-L)
  • 1365-3008
DOI
10.1017/s0030605321000314
OpenAlex
W4200411556
Semantic Scholar
23590f3a819c980071f9c10946759dab432f8814
Cited by
6
References
19
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 2
FWCI
0.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Oryx (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Apollo (cc-by)
Funders
Oriental Bird Club
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Wildlife Conservation and Criminology Analyses
Keywords
Haliaeetus leucoryphus, population size, population distribution, nest site characteristics, nest density, conservation priority areas

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-12.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-12.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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