The DOI matches its Crossref record; 250 of the 256 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Own-language use in language teaching and learning
Abstract
Until recently, the assumption of the language-teaching literature has been that new languages are best taught and learned monolingually, without the use of the students’ own language(s). In recent years, however, this monolingual assumption has been increasingly questioned, and a re-evaluation of teaching that relates the language being taught to the students’ own language has begun. This article surveys the developing English language literature on the role of students’ own language(s) in the language classroom. After clarifying key terms, the paper charts the continuing widespread use of students’ own languages in classrooms around the world and the contemporary academic and societal trends which have led to a revival of support for this. It then explores key arguments which underpin this revival, and reviews a range of empirical studies which examine the extent and functions of own-language use within language classrooms. Next, the article examines the support for own-language use that a range of theoretical frameworks provide, including psycholinguistic and cognitive approaches, general learning theory and sociocultural approaches. Having explored the notion of ‘optimal’ in-class own-language use, the article then reviews research into teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards own-language use. It concludes by examining how a bilingual approach to language teaching and learning might be implemented in practice.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In the past 100 years or so the central doctrine of the late 19th century Reform Movement in additional language education with its advocacy for monolingual teaching, i.e. teaching the focal language through that language exclusively, has held sway in the foreign/second language education thinking (see Cook, 2010: Chapter 1; Cummins, 2007; Hall and Cook, 2012).”
From Translanguaging and the Transdisciplinary Framework for Language Teaching and Learning in a Multilingual World (2019) · cites this paper as Hall and Cook, 2012
Citations
Cites
(1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 53,488
(1999) · Cited by 28,356
Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity
Wenger, E. (1998) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803932 · Cited by 23,500
DEWEY, J. M. (1986) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131728609335764 · Cited by 13,872
(1999) · Cited by 12,812
The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning1
SCHMIDT, R. W. (1990) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129 · Cited by 5,435 · cited 2×
“Although, as noted (section 1), ‘mainstream’ SLA has shown remarkably little interest in the ways learners’ own languages might positively influence new language learning, there are clear links between Cummins’ discussion (2007) of the way teachers might draw learners’ attention to the similarities and differences bet…”
BackgroundPrinciples and Practice in Second Language Acquisition
Higgs, T. V., & Krashen, S. D. (1983) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/328293 · Cited by 5,375
Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning
Lantolf, J. P. (2013) · Cited by 3,852
Fishman, J. A., & Phillipson, R. (1993) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/329140 · Cited by 3,735
3. English as a Global Language
Pinner, R. S. (2016) · Multilingual Matters eBooks · doi:10.21832/9781783095681-004 · Cited by 3,344
Research works printed but not linked: 24
- House, 2009, Translation
- Deller, 2002, Using the mother tongue
- Cohen, Language learning psychology: Research, theory, and pedagogy
- Burden, 2000, The use of the students’ mother tongue in monolingual English ‘conversation’ classes at Japanese universities, The Language Teacher, 24, 1
- Fabrício, 2006, (Re)locating TESOL in an age of empire, 65
- Davies, 1995, Principle and practice in applied linguistics, 145
- Duff, 1989, Translation: A resource book for teachers
- Cook, 2008, Second language learning and language teaching
- Behan, 1997, The proficiency gap in late immersion (extended French): Language use in collaborative tasks, Le journal de l'immersion, 20, 41
- Adendorff, 1996, Voices from the classroom: Qualitative research in second language learning, 388
- Nasrin, 2005, A justification for using a grammar-translation method in ELT classrooms in Bangladesh: 39th Annual IATEFL Conference
- Turnbull M. & Dailey-O'Cain J. (2009). Concluding reflections: Moving forward. In Turnbull M. & Dailey-O'Cain J. (eds.), 182–207.
- Soars, 1986, Headway intermediate.
- 10.1093/eltj/44.2.97 · DOI
- Malmkjær, 1998, Translation and language teaching: Language teaching and translation
- Mattioli, 2004, On native language intrusions and making do with words: Linguistically homogeneous classrooms and native language use, English Teaching Forum, 42, 20
- 10.3138/cmlr.62.1.161 · DOI
- Nagy K. & Robertson D. (2009). Target language use in English classes in Hungarian language schools. In Turnbull M. & Dailey-O'Cain J. (eds.), 66–86.
- Graddol, 2006, English next
- Stiefel L. (2009). Translation as a means to intercultural communicative competence. In Witte A. , Harden T. & Ramos de Oliveira Harden A. (eds.), 99–118.
- MacDonald, 1993, Using the target language
- ICRJ. International CLIL Research Journal (2008) onwards). University of Jyväskylä, Finland. www.icrj.eu/
- van Lier, 2000, Socio-cultural theory and second language learning, 245
- Lado, 1957, Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for teachers
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Task-Based Language Teaching: Theory and Practice
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · doi:10.1017/9781108643689 · Cited by 407
Task-based language teaching theory and practice
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2020) · Cited by 284
Exploring translanguaging in CLIL
Nikula, T., & Moore, P. (2019) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2016.1254151 · Cited by 225
LEUNG, C., & VALDÉS, G. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12568 · Cited by 205
THE CASE FOR USING DUOLINGO AS PART OF THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE
Munday, P. (2015) · RIED Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia · doi:10.5944/ried.19.1.14581 · Cited by 187
Metacognition in Language Learning and Teaching
Haukås, Å., Bjørke, C., & Dypedahl, M. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781351049146 · Cited by 149
Vogel, S., & García, O. (2018) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccy034 · Cited by 728
An updated review on use of L1 in foreign language classrooms
Shin, J.-Y., Dixon, L. Q., & Choi, Y. (2019) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2019.1684928 · Cited by 105
First and second language use in English medium instruction contexts
Macaro, E., Tian, L., & Chu, L. (2018) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168818783231 · Cited by 111
Kelly, N., & Bruen, J. (2014) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168814541720 · Cited by 97
Native‐English‐Speaking Teachers: Disconnections Between Theory, Research, and Practice
Copland, F., Mann, S., & Garton, S. (2019) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.548 · Cited by 87
Translingual practices in English classrooms in India: current perceptions and future possibilities
Anderson, J., & Lightfoot, A. (2018) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2018.1548558 · Cited by 100
Gutiérrez, L. P. (2018) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2018.1534260 · Cited by 80
Developing a Context-sensitive Pedagogy for Communication-oriented Language Teaching
LITTLEWOOD, W. T. (2013) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.68.3.201309.3 · Cited by 78
Busse, V., Cenoz, J., Dalmann, N., & Rogge, F. (2020) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12382 · Cited by 71
Context matters: Learner beliefs and interactional behaviors in an EFL vs. ESL context
Sato, M., & Storch, N. (2020) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168820923582 · Cited by 86
Implementing translanguaging pedagogies in an English medium instruction course
Muguruza, B., Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2020.1822848 · Cited by 79
Turnbull, B. (2016) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2016.1238866 · Cited by 74
Kuchah, K. (2016) · Comparative Education · doi:10.1080/03050068.2016.1185257 · Cited by 64
Language’s Influence on Foreign Exchange Market Dynamics: Exploring the Translation Effect
Al-Tarawneh, A. (2024) · Studies in systems, decision and control · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-73545-5_78 · Cited by 64
The ESL Teacher as Plurilingual: An Australian Perspective
Ellis, E. M. (2013) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.120 · Cited by 61
van Rijt, J., & Coppen, P. A. J. M. (2017) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2017.1410552 · Cited by 61
Gallego-Balsà, L., & Cots, J. M. (2018) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2018.1545020 · Cited by 59
Krulatz, A., & Iversen, J. Y. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2018.1557741 · Cited by 57
Switching codes in the plurilingual classroom
López, C. C., & González-Davies, M. (2015) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccv056 · Cited by 69
González-Davies, M. (2014) · The Interpreter and Translator Trainer · doi:10.1080/1750399x.2014.908555 · Cited by 63
Significance of Literature in Foreign Language Teaching
Babaee, R., & Yahya, W. R. W. (2014) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v7n4p80 · Cited by 60
Unpacking research and practice in world Englishes and Second Language Acquisition
Kubota, R. (2018) · World Englishes · doi:10.1111/weng.12305 · Cited by 51
de la Fuente, M. J., & Goldenberg, C. (2020) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168820921882 · Cited by 74
The use of English and linguistic hybridity among Emirati millennials
Hopkyns, S., Zoghbor, W., & Hassall, P. J. (2020) · World Englishes · doi:10.1111/weng.12506 · Cited by 47
Connecting worlds: interculturality, identity and multilingual digital stories in the making
Anderson, J., & Macleroy, V. (2017) · Language and Intercultural Communication · doi:10.1080/14708477.2017.1375592 · Cited by 56
Measuring the impact of translanguaging in TESOL: a plurilingual approach to ESP
Llanes, À., & Cots, J. M. (2020) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2020.1753749 · Cited by 46
Pedagogical translanguaging and teachers’ perceptions of anxiety
Cenoz, J., Santos, A., & Gorter, D. (2022) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2021.2021387 · Cited by 68
The use of Spanish by a monolingual kindergarten teacher to support English language learners
de Oliveira, L. C., Gilmetdinova, A. M., & Pelaez-Morales, C. (2015) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2015.1070860 · Cited by 44
Teacher’s Code Switching in EFL Undergraduate Classrooms in Libya: Functions and Perceptions
Adriosh, M. M., & Razı, Ö. (2019) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244019846214 · Cited by 43
Fang, F., Jiang, L. G., & Yang, J. (2023) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688231183771 · Cited by 49
Codeswitching in the Classroom
MacSwan, J., & Faltis, C. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315401102 · Cited by 49
Translanguaging in Immersion: Cognitive Support or Social Prestige?
Lyster, R. (2019) · The Canadian Modern Language Review · doi:10.3138/cmlr.2019-0038 · Cited by 40
Closing the Gap: Student Attitudes Toward First Language Use in Monolingual EFL Classrooms
Neokleous, G. (2016) · TESOL Journal · doi:10.1002/tesj.272 · Cited by 38
L1 in the IRF cycle: a case study of Chinese EFL classrooms
Li, J. (2018) · Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education · doi:10.1186/s40862-017-0042-y · Cited by 42
Monolingual versus multilingual foreign language teaching: French and Arabic at beginning levels
Brown, A. (2021) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168821990347 · Cited by 43
Krulatz, A., Christison, M., Lorenz, E., & Sevinç, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2022.2107648 · Cited by 37
Language teacher multilingualism in Norway and Russia: Identity and beliefs
Calafato, R. (2020) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12418 · Cited by 36
ENGLISH FOR TOURISM Using translated texts in the classroom to improve writing skills
Cappelli, G. (2016) · Lingue e linguaggi · doi:10.1285/i22390359v17p21 · Cited by 35
Introduction: Apprehending Identity, Experience, and (In)equity Through and Beyond Binaries
Yazan, B., & Rudolph, N. (2018) · Educational linguistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72920-6_1 · Cited by 35
Guo, X., & Huang, L. (2018) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2018.1435710 · Cited by 35
Linguistic concepts in L1 grammar education: a systematic literature review
van Rijt, J., de Swart, P., & Coppen, P. A. J. M. (2018) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2018.1493742 · Cited by 36
Mapping the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in EFL
Xue-lian, L., & Liu, J. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100880 · Cited by 33
The construction of age-appropriate pedagogies for young learners of English in primary schools
Nguyen, C. D. (2018) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2018.1451912 · Cited by 32
A case for bilingual learners' dictionaries
Lew, R., & Adamska-Sałaciak, A. (2014) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccu038 · Cited by 30
English Language Education Policy in Japan: At a Crossroads
Glasgow, G. P., & Paller, D. L. (2015) · Language policy · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22464-0_7 · Cited by 34
Classroom discourse in bilingual secondary science: language as medium or language as dialectic?
Maxwell-Reid, C. (2017) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2017.1377683 · Cited by 30
Calafato, R. (2021) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2021.103401 · Cited by 30
Translanguaging and Task Based Language Teaching: Crossovers and Challenges
Seals, C. A., Newton, J., Ash, M., & Nguyen, B. T. T. (2020) · Educational linguistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-47031-9_13 · Cited by 30
Glasgow, G. P. (2014) · International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning · doi:10.1080/18334105.2014.11082028 · Cited by 27
Translanguaging: a pedagogical concept that went wandering
Singleton, D., & Flynn, C. J. (2021) · International Multilingual Research Journal · doi:10.1080/19313152.2021.1985692 · Cited by 31
L1-based strategies in learning the grammar of L2 English and L3 Russian by Polish learners
Wach, A. (2016) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2016.08.001 · Cited by 29
TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF TARGET LANGUAGE USE IN THE EFL CLASSROOM: A REPORT FROM NORWAY
Krulatz, A., Neokleous, G., & HENNINGSEN, F. V. (2016) · International Journal for 21st Century Education · doi:10.21071/ij21ce.v3ispecial.5713 · Cited by 26
Reshaping Teacher Cognition About L1 Use Through Critical ELT Teacher Education
Miri, M., Alibakhshi, G., & Alaei, M. M. (2016) · Critical Inquiry in Language Studies · doi:10.1080/15427587.2016.1238286 · Cited by 26
Re-evaluating the use of the L1 in the L2 classroom: students vs. teachers
Tsagari, D., & Giannikas, C. N. (2018) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2017-0104 · Cited by 26
Japanese L2 learners’ translanguaging practice in written peer feedback
Kim, S., & Chang, C.-H. (2022) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2020.1760201 · Cited by 25
Recent Developments in Uses of Literature in Language Teaching
Hall, G. M. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137443663_2 · Cited by 25
Self-citationMolway, L., Arcos, M., & Macaro, E. (2020) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168820913978 · Cited by 32
Hafner, C. A., Li, D. C. S., & Miller, L. (2015) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.2712 · Cited by 28
Reichert, T., & Liebscher, G. (2018) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.295.07rei · Cited by 23
Authentic interaction and examiner accommodation in the IELTS speaking test: A discussion
Filipi, A. (2015) · Studies in Language Assessment · doi:10.58379/kdbk9824 · Cited by 23
Chavez, M. M. T. (2016) · Classroom Discourse · doi:10.1080/19463014.2016.1149499 · Cited by 29
ESL classroom interactions in a translanguaging space
Lin, S. H.-C., & Leung, A. H. (2023) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2022-0202 · Cited by 23
Awang, M. G., & Sinnadurai, S. K. (2011) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.4304/jltr.2.1.60-67 · Cited by 23
Carreres, Á., Muñoz, M., & Noriega-Sánchez, M. (2017) · Journal of Spanish Language Teaching · doi:10.1080/23247797.2017.1419030 · Cited by 23
Multilingual Students´ Self-reported Use of their Language Repertoires when Writing in English
Gunnarsson, T., Housen, A., van de Weijer, J., & Källkvist, M. (2015) · Apples - Journal of Applied Language Studies · doi:10.17011/apples/2015090101 · Cited by 23
Turnbull, B. (2018) · JALT Journal · doi:10.37546/jaltjj40.2-3 · Cited by 25
Vold, E. T., & Brkan, A. (2020) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102309 · Cited by 22
Mediating L2 Learning Through Classroom Interaction
Walsh, S., & Sert, O. (2019) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58542-0_35-1 · Cited by 21
Modern Languages Transition from Primary to Secondary School: The German Pupils’ Voice
Chambers, G. N. (2016) · Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal · doi:10.20533/licej.2040.2589.2016.0302 · Cited by 21
Glas, K., Catalán, E., Donner, M., & Donoso, C. (2021) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2021.1940187 · Cited by 26
Almayez, M. (2022) · Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education · doi:10.1186/s40862-022-00148-3 · Cited by 26
Uses of First and Foreign Languages as Learning Resources in a Foreign Language Classroom
Choi, T.-H., & Leung, C. (2017) · The Journal of AsiaTEFL · doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2017.14.4.1.587 · Cited by 23
L1/L2 alternation practices in students’ task planning
Kunitz, S. (2018) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.295.06kun · Cited by 19
Busse, V., McLaren, L.-M., & Dahm, A. (2021) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2021.2005611 · Cited by 15
Dikilitaş, K., Bahrami, V., & Erbakan, N. T. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101754 · Cited by 19
Ashrafuzzaman, M., Ahmed, I., & Begum, M. (2021) · Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies · doi:10.17263/jlls.904150 · Cited by 27
Manan, S. A., & Kubra, K. T. (2020) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2020.1742722 · Cited by 18
Mori, Y., & Calder, T. M. (2017) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12304 · Cited by 18
Languages in the young learner classroom
Copland, F., & Ni, M. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315623672-10 · Cited by 18
Curriculum Integrated Language Teaching
Chambers, G. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108687867 · Cited by 22
Copland, F., & Yonetsugi, E. (2016) · Classroom Discourse · doi:10.1080/19463014.2016.1192050 · Cited by 17
Reconceptualising translation as intercultural mediation: A renewed place in language learning
Scarino, A. (2015) · Perspectives · doi:10.1080/0907676x.2015.1022192 · Cited by 17
Dictionaries for learners of English
Lew, R. (2016) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s026144481500049x · Cited by 17
TRANSLANGUAGING PRACTICES IN EFL CLASSROOMS: EVIDENCE FROM INDONESIA
Putrawan, G. E. (2022) · CaLLs (Journal of Culture Arts Literature and Linguistics) · doi:10.30872/calls.v8i1.7973 · Cited by 16
Decristan, J., Bertram, V., Reitenbach, V., Schneider, K. M., & Rauch, D. P. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104437 · Cited by 26
Thongwichit, N., & Ulla, M. B. (2024) · Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language--TESL-EJ · doi:10.55593/ej.27108a7 · Cited by 16
CLIL in Multilingual and English-Background Contexts
Bower, K., Cross, R., & Coyle, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108687867.003 · Cited by 22
Own-language use in teaching English to preschool children
Scheffler, P., & Domińska, A. (2018) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccy013 · Cited by 16
Teachers’ Verbal Lexical Explanation for Second Language Vocabulary Learning: A Meta‐Analysis
Lee, J.-H., & Lee, H. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12493 · Cited by 15
Syarifuddin, M., Muhlisin, M., & Thinh, V. T. (2022) · Journal of Language and Literature Studies · doi:10.36312/jolls.v2i1.709 · Cited by 19
Greenier, V., Xiao-hua, L., & Xiao, Y. (2023) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2023-0085 · Cited by 15
The use of teacher code-switching for very young EFL learners
Song, D., & Lee, J. H. (2018) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccy049 · Cited by 15
Tri, D. H., & Moskovsky, C. (2021) · Asian Englishes · doi:10.1080/13488678.2021.1891513 · Cited by 19
Extensive own-language use: a case study of tertiary English language teaching in China
Cai, G., & Cook, G. (2015) · Classroom Discourse · doi:10.1080/19463014.2015.1095104 · Cited by 15
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Hall, G., & Cook, G.
- Affiliations
- Northumbria University (GB)
- King's College London (GB)
- Venue
- Language Teaching
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2012-06-15
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 271-308
- ISSN
- 0261-4448 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-3049
- OpenAlex
- W2164873736
- Cited by
- 466
- References
- 256
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 100.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Language Teaching (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Second Language Learning and Teaching
- Keywords
- second language acquisition, language classroom, psycholinguistic approach, cognitive approach, sociocultural approach, teacher attitudes, student attitudes, English language teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review