Postpartum depression and child development: an investigation of mothers and fathers as sources of risk and resilience
Abstract
We examined maternal and paternal characteristics at 1 month postpartum as risk and protective factors for children's internalizing and externalizing problems at 2–3 years of age. In a sample of 70 couples and their children, fathers' depressive symptoms at 1 month postpartum predicted children's internalizing and externalizing problems at 2–3 years of age, and the interaction of fathers' and mothers' depressive symptoms predicted subsequent internalizing problems. Mothers' postpartum symptoms did not predict either type of children's behavior problems at age 2–3. When entered in the regression equations, mothers' depressive symptoms when the children were age 2–3 years accounted for all of the effects of paternal and maternal postpartum depressive symptoms. No evidence was found for the protective effects of marital satisfaction or social support, or for low levels of depressive symptoms in a spouse. We highlight directions for future risk and resilience research related to parental postpartum depression.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Offspring age ranged from 1 month to 21 years.
“Offspring age ranged from 1 month old (Carro et al. 1993) to 21 years old (Reeb et al. 2015).”
From The effects of paternal depression on child and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review (2016) · cites this paper as Carro et al. 1993
Cites
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032 · see citing works
A Global Measure of Perceived Stress
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2136404 · Cited by 32,807 · see citing works
Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Carbin, M. G. (1988) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5 · Cited by 11,696 · see citing works
Measuring Dyadic Adjustment: New Scales for Assessing the Quality of Marriage and Similar Dyads
Spanier, G. B. (1976) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.2307/350547 · Cited by 7,095 · see citing works
Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity
Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400005812 · Cited by 3,397 · see citing works
Crook, C. K. (1985) · Ethology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1016/0162-3095(85)90031-7 · Cited by 1,480 · see citing works
Lipsitt, L. P., & Rovee‐Collier, C. (1981) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,144 · see citing works
Empirically based assessment of the behavioral/emotional problems of 2- and 3- year-old children
Achenbach, T. M., EDELBROCK, C. S., & Howell, C. T. (1987) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00917246 · Cited by 810 · see citing works
Anxiety and depression : distinctive and overlapping features
Kendall, P. C., & Watson, D. (1989) · Academic Press eBooks · Cited by 697 · see citing works
Bumberry, W. M., Oliver, J. M., & McClure, J. N. (1978) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.46.1.150 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
The effects of maternal depression on children
Gelfand, D. M. (1990) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90065-i · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Social Support, Life Events, and Depression During Pregnancy and the Puerperium
O’Hara, M. W. (1986) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800060063008 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Face-to-face interactions of postpartum depressed and nondepressed mother-infant pairs at 2 months.
Cohn, J. F., Campbell, S. B., Matias, R., & Hopkins, J. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.1.15 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
The role of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology: Make room for daddy.
Phares, V., & Compas, B. E. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.111.3.387 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
Self-citationEstienne, A., & Cohler, B. J. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Early interactions between infants and their postpartum depressed mothers
Field, T. M. (1984) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(84)80010-7 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Infants of Depressed Mothers Show "Depressed" Behavior Even with Nondepressed Adults
Field, T. M., Healy, B. T., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., Bendell, D., Schanberg, S. M., Zimmerman, E. A., & Kuhn, C. (1988) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1988.tb03684.x · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Infants of Depressed Mothers Show "Depressed" Behavior Even with Nondepressed Adults
Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., Bendell, D., Schanberg, S., Zimmerman, E. A., & Kuhn, C. (1988) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130671 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Pregnancy problems, postpartum depression, and early mother-infant interactions.
Field, T. M., Sandberg, D., Garcia, R., Vega‐Lahr, N., Goldstein, S., & Guy, L. (1985) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.21.6.1152 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Rutter, M. L. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0092669 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Specificity of Infants' Response to Mothers' Affective Behavior
Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. Z. (1989) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-198903000-00016 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Prospective investigation of postpartum depression: Factors involved in onset and recovery.
Gotlib, I. H., Whiffen, V. E., Wallace, P. M., & Mount, J. H. (1991) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.100.2.122 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Self-citationProspective investigation of postpartum depression: Factors involved in onset and recovery.
Gotlib, I. H., Whiffen, V. E., Wallace, P. M., & Mount, J. H. (1991) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.100.2.122 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychopathology in children of parents with recurrent depression
Orvaschel, H., Walsh-Allis, G., & Ye, W. (1988) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00910497 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Fleming, A. S., Ruble, D. N., Flett, G. L., & Shaul, D. L. (1988) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.24.1.71 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Hammen, C. L. (2012) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Role of maternal depression in perceptions of child maladjustment.
Conrad, M., & Hammen, C. L. (1989) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.57.5.663 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
The depressed woman as a mother
Weissman, M. M., Paykel, E. S., & Klerman, G. L. (1972) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf00583985 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Prospective study of postpartum depression: 4½-year follow-up of women and children.
Philipps, L. H. C., & O’Hara, M. W. (1991) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.100.2.151 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Research in Community and Mental Health
Morrissey, J. (1998) · Research in community and mental health · doi:10.1016/s0192-0812(2000)11 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Oliver, J. M., & Simmons, M. E. (1984) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.52.5.892 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Phares, V., Compas, B. E., & Howell, D. C. (1989) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.68 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationMaternal depression and the emotional development of the child
Caplan, H. L., Cogill, S. R., Alexandra, H., Robson, K. M., Katz, R., & Kumar, R. (1989) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.154.6.818 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Hammen, C. L. (1991) · Series in psychopathology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-6410-8 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Brody, G. H., & Forehand, R. (1986) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.54.2.237 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Children at Risk for Schizophrenia
Kestenbaum, C. J. (1980) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1980.34.2.164 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Spouses as observers of the events in their relationship.
Jacobson, N. S., & Moore, D. S. (1981) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.49.2.269 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Prospective study of postpartum depression: 4½-year follow-up of women and children.
Philipps, L. H. C., & O’Hara, M. W. (1991) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.100.2.151 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Whiffen, V. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.61.3.485 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationOliver, J. M., & Simmons, M. E. (1984) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.52.5.892 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Is postpartum depression a distinct diagnosis?
Whiffen, V. E. (1992) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(92)90068-j · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Field, T., Healy, B., & LeBlanc, W. G. (1989) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/0163-6383(89)90044-1 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Psychosocial functioning in children of alcoholic fathers, depressed fathers and control fathers.
Jacob, T., & Leonard, K. E. (1986) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol · doi:10.15288/jsa.1986.47.373 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Brody, G. H., & Forehand, R. (1986) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.54.2.237 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Whiffen, V. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.61.3.485 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationDysthymia in the offspring of parents with primary unipolar affective disorder.
Klein, D. N., Clark, D. C., Dansky, L., & Margolis, E. T. (1988) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.97.3.265 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The impact of postpartum depressed mood on mother-infant interaction: Like mother like baby?
Hoffman, Y., & Drotar, D. (1991) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/1097-0355(199121)12:1 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Dysthymia in the offspring of parents with primary unipolar affective disorder.
Klein, D. N., Clark, D., Dansky, L., et al. (1988) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.97.3.265 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Maternal Depressed Mood and Perceptions of Child Temperament
Whiffen, V. E. (1990) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.1990.9914621 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Psychophysiological discriminants of depression at rest and in response to stress
Donat, D. C., & McCullough, J. P. (1983) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198305)39:3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rates and risk of postpartum depression – a meta-analysis
O'hara, M. W., & Swain, A. M. (1996) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540269609037816 · Cited by 3,116 · see citing works
Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1 · Cited by 2,621 · see citing works
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.3.458 · Cited by 2,493 · see citing works
Self-citationPaulson, J. F., & Bazemore, S. D. (2010) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2010.605 · Cited by 1,337 · see citing works
Goodman, J. H. (2004) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02857.x · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Prevalence of paternal depression in pregnancy and the postpartum: an updated meta-analysis
Cameron, E. E., Sedov, I. D., & Tomfohr-Madsen, L. M. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.044 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
The effects of postpartum depression on child development: A meta-analysis
Beck, C. T. (1998) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/s0883-9417(98)80004-6 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2004) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.03.004 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Paternal psychiatric disorders and children's psychosocial development
Ramchandani, P., & Psychogiou, L. (2009) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(09)60238-5 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
The effects of paternal depression on child and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review
Sweeney, S., & MacBeth, A. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.073 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Parent-infant synchrony and the social emotional development of triplets
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1133 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Gross, H. E., Shaw, D. S., Moilanen, K. L., Dishion, T. J., & Wilson, M. N. (2008) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013514 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Risk factors for paternal perinatal depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Chhabra, J., McDermott, B., & Li, W. (2020) · Psychology of Men & Masculinities · doi:10.1037/men0000259 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Associations between paternal depression and behaviour problems in children of 4–6 years
Davé, S., Sherr, L., Senior, R., & Nazareth, I. (2008) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-007-0672-6 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Gere, M. K., Hagen, K. A., Villabø, M. A., Arnberg, K., Neumer, S.-P., & Torgersen, S. (2013) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22010 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Woolgar, M., & Murray, L. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02132.x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
- Authors
- Carro, M. G., Grant, K. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Compas, B. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Vermont (US)
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gotlib, Ian H.
- Compas, Bruce E.
- Venue
- Development and Psychopathology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1993
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 567-579
- ISSN
- 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-2198
- OpenAlex
- W2148600441
- Cited by
- 126
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Keywords
- postpartum depression, child development, paternal depressive symptoms, maternal depressive symptoms, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, risk and protective factors, resilience, marital satisfaction, social support, early childhood behavior problems, parents
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review