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Cited by 318Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

Neural systems of positive affect: relevance to understanding child and adolescent depression?

Open access
FORBES, ERIKA E., DAHL, RONALD E.·2005·Development and Psychopathology
DOI 10.1017/s095457940505039xPMC PMC2129134
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Abstract

From an affective neuroscience perspective, the goal of achieving a deeper, more mechanistic understanding of the development of depression will require rigorous models that address the core underlying affective changes. Such an understanding will necessitate developing and testing hypotheses focusing on specific components of the complex neural systems involved in the regulation of emotion and motivation. In this paper, we illustrate these principles by describing one example of this type of approach: examining the role of disruptions in neural systems of positive affect in major depressive disorder in school-age children and adolescents. We begin by defining positive affect, proposing that positive affect can be distinguished from negative affect by its neurobehavioral features. We provide an overview of neural systems related to reward and positive affect, with a discussion of their potential involvement in depression. We describe a developmental psychopathology framework, addressing developmental issues that could play a role in the etiology and maintenance of early-onset depression. We review the literature on altered positive affect in depression, suggesting directions for future research. Finally, we discuss the treatment implications of this framework. This research was supported by a Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, NIMH Training Grant T32 MH018269, and NIMH Research Network R24 MH67346. We thank David J. Kupfer for his compelling suggestions about clinical course and development across the life span, and we thank Anna Lotze for help with references.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual review argues that alterations in positive affect and reward-related neural systems are a critical, understudied feature of child and adolescent Major Depressive Disorder, distinct from negative affect. It integrates affective neuroscience and developmental psychopathology to propose hypotheses about reward processing, puberty, and treatment implications.

Key findings

  • Positive affect is defined as hedonic, behavioral, motivational, and physiologic features tied to reward pursuit and enjoyment; reward components such as “wanting” versus “liking” are argued to have separable neural substrates, including the striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, and dopamine systems.
  • Depression in youth is common and impairing: lifetime adolescent prevalence is estimated to be as high as 25%, prevalence rises sharply during adolescence—especially in females—and early-onset depression has high continuity into adulthood.
  • Evidence from adults and limited youth studies indicates depression involves reduced positive affect, including diminished subjective positive affect, reduced response to pleasant stimuli, decreased left frontal resting EEG activity, and altered reward-related striatal responses; in one youth study, subjective positive affect declined over a 3-day assessment in the depressed group but remained consistent in controls.
  • The paper recommends naturalistic/ecological momentary assessment, fMRI reward tasks, linking phenomenological and neural indices, and considering puberty-related reward-seeking; treatment may target anhedonia through behavioral activation, CBT, IPT, DBT, and family factors.

Methods

  • Design: conceptual/review paper, not an empirical study; it presents a framework, two clinical case examples, a literature review, and suggested research directions.
  • Data or sample: no primary sample; it cites existing human, animal, adult, child, and adolescent studies and describes two outpatient cases—RT, an 11-year-old boy, and SK, a 16-year-old girl.
  • Main analysis: narrative synthesis across affective neuroscience, developmental psychopathology, reward-circuit literature, and treatment literature; no systematic review or meta-analysis is described. The paper also reviews neuroscience methods (EEG, ERP, MEG, MRI, fMRI, PET, SPECT) and argues fMRI is more feasible and appropriate for children and adolescents.

Limitations

  • The paper states that relatively little is known about positive affect in childhood and adolescent depression; most studies operationalize positive affect as self-reported subjective experience in laboratory settings, few are prospective, and temperament–depression studies have been limited to self-report of both temperament and depressive symptoms.
  • The paper states a need for longitudinal designs, behavioral measures, naturalistic/EMA methods, and neural measures; it notes PET and SPECT are considered inappropriate for children and adolescents because they require radiation exposure, and fMRI has challenges with movement artifact and scanner noise.
  • Evident from the text: as a conceptual review, it does not test hypotheses or provide new empirical data, and several cited youth findings are preliminary, under review, or based on small/clinical samples.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s095457940505039x

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 189 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Methods

    Using the reward-contingent decision task, the authors found that reduced reward-seeking behavior-specifically, failure to choose an option with a high probability of yielding a high-magnitude reward-was associated with concurrent internalizing diagnoses in a high-risk group of 11-year-old boys.

    “We found that reduced reward-seeking behavior – specifically, failure to choose an option with a high probability of yielding a high-magnitude reward – was associated with concurrent internalizing diagnoses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forbes, Shaw, & Dahl, under review

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  • Findingown data
    § Methods

    Failure to choose the high-probability, high-magnitude option predicted internalizing diagnoses, self-reported depression, and mother-reported internalizing problems one year later.

    “In addition, failure to choose this high-probability, high-magnitude option predicted internalizing diagnoses, self-reported depression, and mother-reported internalizing problems one year later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forbes, Shaw, & Dahl, under review

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  • Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Motivation or "wanting" has different neural substrates than enjoyment or "liking".

    “For example, motivation or “wanting” is seen as having different neural substrates than enjoyment or “liking” (Berridge & Robinson, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berridge & Robinson, 2003

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  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    The view of reduced positive affect as a critical aspect of depression is consistent with emotion-based, motivation-based, behavioral, and evolutionary models of affective psychopathology.

    “The view of reduced positive affect as a critical aspect of depression is consistent with emotion-based, motivation-based, behavioral, and evolutionary models of affective psychopathology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    MDD is the strongest psychiatric correlate of suicide and suicide attempts in children and adolescents.

    “MDD is the strongest psychiatric correlate of suicide and suicide attempts in this age group (Brent, Perper et al., 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brent, Perper et al., 1993

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  • May combine two claims. 39
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 63

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    Findingcitation
    § Methods

    In a study in our lab, children and adolescents with depression reported an unusual pattern of positive affect over time: during a three-day assessment, subjective positive affect declined in the depressed group but was consistent for the control group.

    “In a study in our lab, children and adolescents with depression reported an unusual pattern of positive affect over time: in the course of a three-day assessment, subjective positive affect declined in the depressed group but was consistent for the control group (Forbes et al., 2004).”
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    • cites Forbes et al., 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Bipolar disorder is posited to be characterized primarily by dysregulated positive affect.

    “a disorder posited to be characterized primarily by dysregulated positive affect (Leibenluft, Charney, & Pine, 2003).”
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    • cites Leibenluft, Charney, & Pine, 2003

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    • The authors state this as an assumption: The proposed framework will also apply to dysthymic disorder and bipolar disorder in many ways.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Positive affect can be distinguished from negative affect by its neurobehavioral features.

    “We begin by defining positive affect, proposing that positive affect can be distinguished from negative affect by its neurobehavioral features.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    In children and adolescents, positive affect serves to initiate and maintain relationships with friends, parents, and romantic partners.

    “In children and adolescents, positive affect serves to initiate and maintain relationships with friends, parents, and romantic partners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Without greater specificity regarding which aspects of emotion and/or motivation are altered and in which ways, it is probably not sufficient to say that a child with depression, anxiety, or a bipolar illness has a disorder of affect regulation.

    “without greater specificity regarding which aspects of emotion and/or motivation are altered and in which ways, it is probably not sufficient to say that a child with depression, anxiety, or a bipolar illness has a disorder of affect regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Few conceptual models address the specific aspects of affect that are considered to be “dysregulated”.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Early-onset depression has high continuity into adulthood, and children and adolescents who experience depression are likely to encounter severe, recurrent depression later in life.

    “This form of depression has high continuity into adulthood, and children and adolescents who experience depression are likely to encounter severe, recurrent depression later in life (Costello, Angold, & Keeler, 1999; Kovacs, Gatsonis, Paulauskas, & Richards, 1989; Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999; Pine, Cohen, Gurley, Brook, & Ma, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Costello, Angold, & Keeler, 1999

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    • cites Kovacs, Gatsonis, Paulauskas, & Richards, 1989

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    • cites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    There are numerous reasons to consider the role of alterations in neural systems of positive affect, particularly early in the course of the illness.

    “there are numerous reasons to consider the role of alterations in neural systems of positive affect, particularly early in the course of the illness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Few conceptual models address the specific aspects of affect that are considered to be “dysregulated”.
    • Rests on an assumption: Examining the specific alterations in the neural systems of positive emotion and motivation relevant to depression is a novel, exciting, but understudied approach.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Social withdrawal may indicate reduced enthusiasm for interactions with others or difficulty obtaining enjoyment from those interactions.

    “Social withdrawal, which is not a criterion symptom but is common in depression, may indicate reduced enthusiasm for interactions with others or difficulty obtaining enjoyment from those interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The tripartite model posits that reduced positive affect is a factor specific to depression, while depression and anxiety both involve elevated distress.

    “The dominant emotion-based model of depression is the tripartite model of anxiety and depression, which posits that although depression and anxiety both involve elevated distress (i.e., negative affect), reduced positive affect is a factor specific to depression (L. A. Clark & Watson, 1991).”
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    • cites L. A. Clark & Watson, 1991

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Sadness is considered a mixed affective state that involves elements of both negative affect and positive affect.

    “From this perspective, sadness is considered a mixed affective state that involves elements of both negative affect and positive affect (L. A. Clark & Watson, 1991).”
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    • cites L. A. Clark & Watson, 1991

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Fatigue can be conceptualized as a sign of diminished motivation and/or decreased energy to pursue enjoyable and goal-related activities.

    “Fatigue can be conceptualized as a sign of diminished motivation and/or decreased energy to pursue enjoyable and goal-related activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Early-onset depression has serious consequences for academic and psychosocial functioning.

    “Early-onset depression has serious consequences for academic and psychosocial functioning (Glied & Pine, 2002; Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Glied & Pine, 2002

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    • cites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2003

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The approach-withdrawal model postulates that affect is organized into approach and withdrawal systems, which have specific behavioral functions and neural correlates.

    “The model postulates that affect is organized into approach and withdrawal systems, which have specific behavioral functions and neural correlates (Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Fox, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000

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    • cites Fox, 1991

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Depression is likely to involve difficulty recovering from negative affect or enhancing positive affect, responding to changing circumstances, and increasing overall activity level and time spent in social interactions.

    “Namely, depression is likely to involve difficulty recovering from negative affect or enhancing positive affect, responding to changing circumstances, and increasing overall activity level and time spent in social interactions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Methods

    Through training in a simulator, the authors are able to address movement artifact and scanner noise issues by helping participants become familiar with the scanner environment and the tasks they will be asked to complete.

    “We have found that through training in a simulator, we are able to address these issues by helping participants become familiar with the scanner environment and the tasks they will be asked to complete.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Poor flexibility can involve becoming "stuck" in terms of subjective mood, physiology, or behavior.

    “Poor flexibility can involve becoming “stuck” in terms of subjective mood, physiology, or behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Affect can be regulated by the self or others, and thus the social environment can play an important role in affect regulation.

    “Affect can be regulated by the self or others, and thus the social environment can play an important role in affect regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Motivation-based models propose a link between depression and decreased activity in the Behavioral Activation System (BAS).

    “Motivation-based models of depression (e.g., Depue & Iacono, 1989) propose a link between depression and decreased activity in the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) (Fowles, 1980; Gray, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Depue & Iacono, 1989

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    • cites Fowles, 1980

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    • cites Gray, 1990

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Temperament is viewed as an influence on psychological outcomes.

    “Temperament is viewed as an influence on psychological outcomes (Kagan & Snidman, 1991), but we note that it is not considered static.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kagan & Snidman, 1991

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Affect can also serve to regulate the environment around the child or adolescent, so that it can have regulatory functions as well as being the object of regulation.

    “Finally, affect can also serve to regulate the environment around the child or adolescent, so that it can have regulatory functions as well as being the object of regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    All of these models propose a unique and important role for positive affect systems in depression.

    “Although they are inspired by different conceptual frameworks, all of these models propose a unique and important role for positive affect systems in depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Depression is associated with reduced frequency of experiencing reward in the social environment.

    “Behavioral models focus on learning, claiming that depression is associated with reduced frequency of experiencing reward in the social environment (Lewinsohn, Hoberman, Teri, & Hautzinger, 1985).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lewinsohn, Hoberman, Teri, & Hautzinger, 1985

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Coordination among reward-related brain structures plays a role in guiding behavior and influencing affective state.

    “Coordination among these brain structures plays a role in guiding behavior and, by extension, influencing affective state (Schultz, 2000).”
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    • cites Schultz, 2000

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Diagnostic criteria also include intensity and duration of these symptoms, further suggesting alterations in affect regulation processes.

    “Diagnostic criteria also include intensity and duration of these symptoms, further suggesting alterations in affect regulation processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    The function and interrelation of neural systems of reward show specificity to behavioral manifestations, thus supporting the claim that positive affect has some independence from negative affect.

    “The function and interrelation of these neural systems show specificity to behavioral manifestations, thus supporting the claim that positive affect has some independence from negative affect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The amygdala appears to play a role in reward responding and in representing stimulus-value associations involving rewarding outcomes.

    “Recent studies also suggest that the amygdala, which is thought to respond to social signals of emotion (Dalgleish, 2004), also appears to play a role in reward responding (Elliott, Newman, Longe, & Deakin, 2003; Elliott, Newman, Longe, & William Deakin, 2004) and in representing stimulus-value associations involving rewarding outcomes (Baxter & Murray, 2002).”
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    • cites Elliott, Newman, Longe, & Deakin, 2003

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    • cites Elliott, Newman, Longe, & William Deakin, 2004

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    • cites Baxter & Murray, 2002

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Dopamine response provides a signal to the orbitofrontal cortex, which is implicated in reward expectation, and the striatum, which has a role in detecting rewards and motivating reward-oriented behavior.

    “Dopamine response provides a signal to the orbitofrontal cortex, which is implicated in reward expectation (Schoenbaum, Chiba, & Gallagher, 1998), and the striatum, which has a role in detecting rewards and motivating reward-oriented behavior (Schultz & Romo, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schoenbaum, Chiba, & Gallagher, 1998

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    • cites Schultz & Romo, 1988

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    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Affect regulation processes can be automatic as well as effortful or conscious.

    “The processes involved can be automatic as well as effortful or conscious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The striatum has been implicated in detecting the presence of rewards and representing reward-related goals, while the orbitofrontal cortex has been implicated in processing the magnitude or value of reward and the expectation of reward.

    “The striatum has been implicated in detecting the presence of rewards and representing reward-related goals, while the orbitofrontal cortex has been implicated in processing to the magnitude or value of reward and the expectation of reward.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish, 2004

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    • cites Rolls, 2000

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    • cites Schultz, 2000

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    Premisereasoning
    § Abstract

    Low rates of reward result in a reduction in active behaviors such as social interaction, reducing the chances of receiving reward and thereby contributing to the maintenance of depressive mood.

    “Low rates of reward then result in a reduction in active behaviors such as social interaction, reducing the chances of receiving reward and thereby contributing to the maintenance of depressive mood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The diagnostic criteria for MDD require the presence of either persistent low mood or anhedonia, both of which reflect difficulties with affect regulation.

    “The diagnostic criteria for MDD require the presence of either persistent low mood or anhedonia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), both of which reflect difficulties with affect regulation.”
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    • cites American Psychiatric Association, 2000

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    From the approach-withdrawal view, depression is associated with deficits in the approach system.

    “From this view, depression is associated with deficits in the approach system.”
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    • cites Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000

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    • cites Fox, 1991

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Reward-related brain systems have functions such as detecting reward, predicting future reward, representing reward value, and representing goals.

    “Reward-related brain systems have functions such as detecting reward, predicting future reward, representing reward value, and representing goals (see Schultz, 2000 for a review).”
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    • cites Schultz, 2000

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Dopamine is apparently released in the striatum during a goal-directed video game and during guessing tasks with variable-ratio monetary reward.

    “Dopamine is apparently released in the striatum during a goal-directed video game (Koepp et al., 1998) and during guessing tasks with variable-ratio monetary reward (Zald et al., 2004).”
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    • cites Koepp et al., 1998

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    • cites Zald et al., 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The social risk hypothesis views reduced positive affect in depression within an evolutionary psychology framework, where reduced social risk-taking behavior and low reward motivation represent an attempt to reduce the individual's burden on the social group.

    “Finally, the social risk hypothesis of depression (Allen & Badcock, 2003) views reduced positive affect in depression within an evolutionary psychology framework. According to the model, reduced social risk-taking behavior (i.e., behavior in pursuit of reward) and low reward motivation represent an attempt to reduce the individual's burden on the social group.”
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    • cites Allen & Badcock, 2003

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Methods

    There may be an early developmental sensitivity to disruptions in positive affect, so that episodes occurring early in the illness involve alterations to positive affect responding whereas later episodes do not.

    “There may be an early developmental sensitivity to disruptions in positive affect, so that episodes occurring early in the illness involve alterations to positive affect responding whereas later episodes do not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Methods

    Pubertal development is associated with a normative increase in reward-seeking behavior.

    “The first change is the normative increase in reward-seeking behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Pubertal development is associated with an increase in rates of depression and the emergence of the gender difference in depression.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Substance use disorders and depression are highly comorbid.

    “Although a review of the literature on adolescent substance abuse is beyond the scope of this paper, we note that substance use disorders and depression are highly comorbid (D. B. Clark, Parker, & Lynch, 1999; Grant et al., 2004).”
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    • cites D. B. Clark, Parker, & Lynch, 1999

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    • cites Grant et al., 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Despite cognitive understanding of risks and consequences, adolescents display less mature decision-making and engage in dangerous activities.

    “Namely, despite cognitive understanding of the risks and consequences of various dangerous activities, adolescents nonetheless display less mature decision-making and consequently engage in such activities (Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000).”
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    • cites Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Methods

    Gender may modify the relation between pubertal development and increased negative affect in depression.

    “In terms of affect, gender may modify the relation between pubertal development and increased negative affect in depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    First-episode but not recurrent depression was associated with diminished response to pleasant stimuli.

    “In a recent study, first-episode but not recurrent depression was associated with diminished response to pleasant stimuli (Nandrino, Dodin, Martin, & Henniaux, 2004), for instance.”
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    • cites Nandrino, Dodin, Martin, & Henniaux, 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Adult-onset depression and depression with onset in childhood or adolescence differ in neurobiological characteristics and treatment response.

    “In fact, differences in neurobiological characteristics and treatment response between adult-onset depression and depression with onset in childhood and adolescence have led some scientists to question whether there are separate subtypes of MDD (Kaufman, Martin, King, & Charney, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaufman, Martin, King, & Charney, 2001

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In depressed and healthy children and adolescents, negative affect was higher in the depressed group overall and especially high in adolescent girls.

    “A study with depressed and healthy children and adolescents found that negative affect, while higher in the depressed group overall, was especially high in adolescent girls (Forbes, Williamson, Ryan, & Dahl, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forbes, Williamson, Ryan, & Dahl, 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Adolescents exhibit similar activation in the ventral striatum during a guessing task in which they can win money, but they do not exhibit the caudate activation typical of adults during this task.

    “For instance, while adolescents exhibit similar activation in the ventral striatum during a guessing task in which they can win money, they do not exhibit the caudate activation typical of adults during this task (May et al., 2004).”
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    • cites May et al., 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Not all aspects of temperament are expected to be stable across development; temperament can be influenced by socialization experiences, neuronal maturation, and changes in gene expression.

    “Not all aspects of temperament are expected to be stable across development, as temperament can be influenced by factors such as socialization experiences, neuronal maturation, and changes in gene expression (Davidson, 1994; Fox, Henderson, Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, 2001; Kagan, Snidman, Arcus, & Reznick, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Davidson, 1994

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    • cites Fox, Henderson, Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, 2001

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    • cites Kagan, Snidman, Arcus, & Reznick, 1994

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Reward systems may be vulnerable to dysregulation in the form of depression, even as their responses to rewarding stimuli are undergoing developmental change.

    “These systems may be vulnerable to dysregulation in the form of depression, even as their responses to rewarding stimuli are undergoing developmental change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Dysregulated use of rewarding substances can create problems that influence mood.

    “Furthermore, the dysregulated use of rewarding substances can create problems that influence mood (D. B. Clark et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites D. B. Clark et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Affective intensity, affective lability, and reward responsiveness appear to be enhanced during adolescence.

    “Affective intensity, affective lability, and reward responsiveness also appear to be enhanced during adolescence (Larson, Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, 1980; Steinberg, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Larson, Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, 1980

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Steinberg, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Recurrence, chronicity, and duration of depressive episodes may vary with developmental factors such as the effective refinement of affect regulation skills.

    “Recurrence, chronicity, and duration of episodes may all vary with developmental factors such as the effective refinement of affect regulation skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Healthy adolescents are similar to adults in some important ways, including the brain regions active during rewarding events.

    “The few studies conducted to date that address adolescents' reward processing have suggested that healthy adolescents are similar to adults in some important ways, including the brain regions active during rewarding events (Bjork et al., 2004; May, Dahl et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bjork et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites May, Dahl et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Early onset of depression may have implications for socioemotional development, brain development, and the development of responses to stress.

    “Although clinical course is not itself a developmental issue, the onset of depression early in life may have implications for socioemotional development, brain development, and the development of responses to stress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Altered reward processing has implications for the development of substance use disorders.

    “In fact, altered reward processing has implications for the development of substance use disorders (Kelley & Berridge, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kelley & Berridge, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Depression can serve as a source of chronic stress, leading to long-term problems in physical and mental health.

    “But depression can also serve as a source of chronic stress, leading to long-term problems in physical and mental health (McEwen, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McEwen, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In a preliminary study focusing on mood ratings in natural settings, depression was associated with lower self-reported positive affect and social activity.

    “In a preliminary study focusing on mood ratings in natural settings (Axelson et al., 2003), depression was also associated with lower self-reported positive affect and social activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Axelson et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    The wheel of fortune paradigm yields behavioral data, has been applied to questions about reward and punishment in early-onset bipolar disorder, and has been used successfully in an fMRI study.

    “The paradigm yields behavioral data, has been applied to questions about reward and punishment in early-onset bipolar disorder (Ernst, Dickstein et al., 2004), and has been used successfully in an fMRI study (Ernst, Nelson et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ernst, Dickstein et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ernst, Nelson et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    During affective contexts, depressed adults exhibit increased activation in the amygdala in response to faces with fear expressions and more sustained amygdala activation in response to negatively valenced words.

    “During affective contexts, depressed adults exhibit increased activation in the amygdala in response to faces with fear expressions (Sheline et al., 2001) and more sustained amygdala activation in response to negatively valenced words (Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sheline et al., 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Depressed adolescents and their mothers display less facilitative behavior, which reflects caring, positive communications.

    “Using this method, Sheeber and Sorensen (1998) reported that depressed adolescents and their mothers display less facilitative behavior, which reflects caring, positive communications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheeber & Sorensen, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    Disrupted reward responsiveness and depression may have reciprocal influence, so that the experience of either may enhance dispositions toward the other.

    “In addition, it is possible that disrupted reward responsiveness and depression have reciprocal influence, so that the experience of either may enhance dispositions toward the other.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Studies of adult depression suggest subjective, behavioral, and physiologic components of positive affect may all be disrupted with depression.

    “Together, studies of adult depression suggest several important considerations for research with depressed children and adolescents. Subjective, behavioral, and physiologic components of positive affect may all be disrupted with depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Methods

    The two groups may have initially found the laboratory environment reinforcing or engaging, but the depressed group found it less so as the assessment went on.

    “This suggests that the two groups may have initially found the laboratory environment reinforcing or engaging, but that the depressed group found it less so as the assessment went on.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Methods

    Reward-related choices and behavior may play a role not only in current depression but in the continuity of depression or the prediction of future depression.

    “We interpret these findings as indicating that reward-related choices and behavior may play a role not only in current depression but in the continuity of depression or the prediction of future depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In healthy adults, startle is usually attenuated during pleasant visual stimuli and potentiated during unpleasant visual stimuli.

    “This pattern is the opposite of that in healthy adults, as startle is usually attenuated during pleasant visual stimuli and potentiated during unpleasant visual stimuli (Bradley, Cuthbert, & Lang, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bradley, Cuthbert, & Lang, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In a monetary reward progressive ratio reinforcement task, depressed adults made fewer responses and earned less money.

    “Similarly, in another study employing monetary reward, depressed adults made fewer responses during a progressive ratio reinforcement task and consequently earned less money (Hughes, Pleasants, & Pickens, 1985).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hughes, Pleasants, & Pickens, 1985

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    EMA has been used to measure affect in adult psychopathology.

    “it has been used to measure affect in adult psychopathology (Shiffman et al., 2002)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shiffman et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    Psychosocial treatments allow an explicit emphasis on increasing activation in positive affect systems.

    “Third, psychosocial treatments allow an explicit emphasis on increasing activation in positive affect systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    IPT's encouragement of improved interpersonal relatedness, improved relationships, and decreased conflict may serve to indirectly target the decreased social activity and low mood that occur in depression.

    “its encouragement of improved interpersonal relatedness, improved relationships, and decreased conflict may serve to indirectly target the decreased social activity and low mood that occur in depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In school-age children, those who experience more intense affect and use less effective affect regulation strategies have higher depressive symptoms.

    “A study of school-age children reported that those who experience more intense affect and use less effective affect regulation strategies have higher depressive symptoms (Silk et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Silk et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    Increasing the experience of pleasant activities will both elicit positive affect and reinforce the behavior required to participate in the activities.

    “with the rationale that increasing the experience of pleasant activities will both elicit positive affect and reinforce the behavior required to participate in the activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Psychotherapy is an appropriate treatment for all children and adolescents with depressive disorders.

    “The practice parameters outlined by the American Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry state that “psychotherapy is an appropriate treatment for all children and adolescents with depressive disorders” (Birmaher, Brent, & Benson, 1998, p. 1234).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Birmaher, Brent, & Benson, 1998

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    A developmental psychopathology approach requires understanding psychopathology within the context of normal development.

    “Because a developmental psychopathology approach requires understanding psychopathology within the context of normal development (Cicchetti, 1993; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cicchetti, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sroufe & Rutter, 1984

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Techniques for measuring positive affect in real-life settings have important applications for examining treatment effects.

    “Techniques for measuring positive affect in real-life settings also have important applications for examining treatment effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Positive affect includes motivation to obtain reward and engagement in pleasant activities, not merely subjective mood.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    The focus of behavioral activation is increasing the frequency of pleasant activities and overall activity level.

    “The focus of this component is increasing the frequency of pleasant activities, as well as the overall activity level”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    IPT focuses on the interpersonal context of depressive symptoms by encouraging change in social behavior.

    “IPT, which has been adapted for use with adolescents (Mufson & Pollack Dorta, 2003), focuses on the interpersonal context of depressive symptoms by encouraging change in social behavior (Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    The most obvious way that CBT addresses enhancement of positive affect is through the behavioral activation component.

    “The most obvious way that CBT addresses enhancement of positive affect is through the behavioral activation component.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    The application of DBT to adolescents includes a family therapy component.

    “The application of DBT to adolescents includes a family therapy component (Miller, Glinski, Woodberry, Mitchell, & Indik, 2002; Woodberry, Miller, Glinski, Indik, & Mitchell, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Miller, Glinski, Woodberry, Mitchell, & Indik, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Woodberry, Miller, Glinski, Indik, & Mitchell, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Focusing on ecologically valid contexts and measuring behaviors in natural settings can provide accurate assessments of key aspects of emotion and motivation that are extremely difficult to assess in a laboratory setting.

    “Focusing on ecologically valid contexts and measuring behaviors in natural settings can provide accurate assessments of key aspects of emotion and motivation that are extremely difficult to assess in a laboratory setting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Positive affect includes motivation to obtain reward and engagement in pleasant activities, not merely subjective mood.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    A key component of DBT is the teaching of skills involving self-regulation.

    “A key component of DBT is the teaching of skills involving self-regulation (Linehan, 1993b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Linehan, 1993b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    DBT was originally designed as a treatment for borderline personality disorder.

    “DBT was originally designed as a treatment for borderline personality disorder, a disorder considered to be fundamentally characterized by dysregulation of affect (Linehan, 1993a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Linehan, 1993a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Both pharmacologic and psychosocial interventions are recommended for childhood and adolescent depression.

    “overviews of the literature on the treatment of childhood and adolescent depression emphasize that both pharmacologic and psychosocial interventions are recommended (Birmaher, Ryan, Williamson, Brent, & Kaufman, 1996)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Birmaher, Ryan, Williamson, Brent, & Kaufman, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    The reported reductions in depressive symptoms in DBT treatment studies indicate that DBT could be worthwhile for use with children and adolescents with MDD alone.

    “The reported reductions in depressive symptoms in these treatment studies indicate that DBT could be worthwhile for use with children and adolescents with MDD alone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    IPT does not contain a specific positive affect component.

    “Although IPT does not contain a specific positive affect component”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    There is evidence for the value of both CBT and IPT.

    “there is evidence for the value of both (Brent et al., 1997; Clarke et al., 2002; Clarke, Rohde, Lewinsohn, Hops, & Seeley, 1999; Mufson et al., 2004)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brent et al., 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Clarke et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Clarke et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    Positive affect may be enhanced through several treatment avenues for depression, including pharmacotherapy.

    “Positive affect may be enhanced through several treatment avenues for depression, including pharmacotherapy (Emslie et al., 2002; Ryan, 2003)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Emslie et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ryan, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    In participants ages 10-17 years, depression is associated with decreased peer interactions, increased boredom, and overall low positive affect.

    “In a recent study from our research group, depression in participants ages 10-17 years was associated with decreased peer interactions, increased boredom, and overall low positive affect (Axelson et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Axelson et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    CBT components include cognitive restructuring, behavioral activation, problem solving, and occasionally relaxation training.

    “the components of treatment include cognitive restructuring, behavioral activation, problem solving, and occasionally relaxation training (Clarke, DeBar, & Lewinsohn, 2003; Weersing & Brent, 2003)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Clarke, DeBar, & Lewinsohn, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Weersing & Brent, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    CBT and IPT differ in their approach toward achieving the goal of reducing depression.

    “CBT and IPT differ in their approach toward achieving the goal of reducing depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Methods

    Behavioral and physiological evidence supports the claim that alterations in positive affect systems are critical to depression.

    “Behavioral and physiological evidence supports the claim that alterations in positive affect systems are critical to depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Methods

    Consideration of changes in positive affect from an affective neuroscience perspective is relevant to advancing knowledge of the developmental psychopathology of depression.

    “the consideration of those changes from an affective neuroscience perspective is relevant to advancing knowledge of the developmental psychopathology of depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Methods

    The treatments applied to children and adolescents with depression in the community are not consistently tailored developmentally or provided by psychotherapists with training in the needs of young populations.

    “the treatments applied to children and adolescents with depression in the community are not consistently tailored developmentally or provided by psychotherapists with training in the needs of young populations (Compton, Burns, Egger, & Robertson, 2002; Coyle et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Compton, Burns, Egger, & Robertson, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Coyle et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

89 of 89

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few conceptual models address the specific aspects of affect that are considered to be “dysregulated”.

    “However, few conceptual models address the specific aspects of affect that are considered to be “dysregulated”.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The proposed framework will also apply to dysthymic disorder and bipolar disorder in many ways.

    “Although we focus only on MDD in this paper, we presume that our framework will also apply to dysthymic disorder and bipolar disorder in many ways.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Examining the specific alterations in the neural systems of positive emotion and motivation relevant to depression is a novel, exciting, but understudied approach.

    “Just as the study of positive experience has only recently received attention in the field of psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), examining the specific alterations in the neural systems of positive emotion and motivation relevant to depression is a novel, exciting, but understudied approach.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    PET and SPECT are inappropriate for use with children and adolescents because they require exposure to radiation.

    “PET and SPECT are considered inappropriate for use with children and adolescents because they require exposure to radiation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pubertal development is associated with an increase in rates of depression and the emergence of the gender difference in depression.

    “The second is an increase in rates of depression—and the emergence of the gender difference in depression.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Positive affect includes motivation to obtain reward and engagement in pleasant activities, not merely subjective mood.

    “When studying positive affect, naturalistic assessments are valuable for truly capturing the construct because positive affect includes motivation to obtain reward and engagement in pleasant activities, not merely subjective mood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few studies of low positive affectivity and depression in children and adolescents have been conducted prospectively, and all have been limited to self-report of both temperament and depressive symptoms.

    “Few studies have been conducted prospectively, however, and all have been limited to self-report of both temperament and depressive symptoms.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most studies to date have operationalized positive affect as self-reported subjective experience and have obtained data on positive affect in laboratory settings.

    “Most studies to date have operationalized positive affect as self-reported subjective experience and have obtained data on positive affect in laboratory settings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most studies to date have been conducted without consideration of developmental issues.

    “Furthermore, most studies to date have been conducted without consideration of developmental issues.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Knowledge of the mechanisms of developmental change in reward-related behavior during adolescence is scant.

    “Despite the apparent normative increase in behavior associated with reward during adolescence, knowledge of the mechanisms of this developmental change is scant.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many areas of cognitive and affective functioning undergo development through adolescence.

    “Many areas of cognitive and affective functioning undergo development through adolescence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The neural bases of reward processing have been examined more consistently in adults than in children or adolescents.

    “The neural bases of reward processing have been examined more consistently in adults than in children or adolescents.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Nearly all studies of affective processing in depression have emphasized aversive affective stimuli to the exclusion of pleasant stimuli.

    “nearly all studies of affective processing in depression have emphasized aversive affective stimuli to the exclusion of pleasant stimuli.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Positive affect has multiple components.

    “Positive affect – whether defined behaviorally or physiologically – has multiple components”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Studies of affect using fMRI have not attempted to validate their findings through assessment of subjective affect in natural settings.

    “Studies of affect using fMRI have not attempted to validate their findings through assessment of subjective affect in natural settings”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reward-seeking appears to be enhanced in healthy adolescents but diminished in adolescents with depression.

    “reward-seeking appears to be enhanced in healthy adolescents but diminished in adolescents with depression.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Psychosocial approaches may be preferred by children and caregivers.

    “psychosocial approaches may be preferred by children and caregivers”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Positive affect is especially relevant to social behavior.

    “positive affect is especially relevant to social behavior”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parents play an important role in children and adolescents' affect regulation.

    “parents play an important role in children and adolescents' affect regulation”
19 of 19

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Developmental models suggest that social stressors influence depressive symptoms through effects on reward-related brain function.

    “Developmental models suggest that social stressors influence depressive symptoms through effects on reward-related brain function (Forbes and Dahl, 2005; Nelson et al., 2005; Davey et al., 2008).”

    From Neural Activation to Parental Praise Interacts With Social Context to Predict Adolescent Depressive Symptoms (2019) · cites this paper as Forbes and Dahl, 2005

    The Methods passages on clinical course and reward processing (page numbers unavailable) separately link chronic stressors to depression and propose a role for reward-related brain function in depression. They do not say that social stressors affect depressive symptoms through changes in reward-related brain function; that mediating link is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Problems with self-regulation of emotions are linked to the etiology and maintenance of diverse problems including depression, antisocial behavior, addictions, and suicidal ideation.

    “Problems with self-regulation of emotions are linked to the etiology and maintenance of diverse problems including depression (e.g., Forbes and Dahl 2005), antisocial behavior (Hinshaw 2002), addictions (Kuntsche et al. 2007) and suicidal ideation (Wyman et al. 2009).”

    From Intervention to Strengthen Emotional Self-Regulation in Children with Emerging Mental Health Problems: Proximal Impact on School Behavior (2010) · cites this paper as Forbes and Dahl 2005

    Forbes and Dahl is cited for depression, not for the other problems in the sentence. The paper’s Abstract links affect dysregulation to depression and says this framework is relevant to its etiology, but it does not explicitly link problems with emotion self-regulation to the maintenance of depression as a disorder. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Adolescence is characterized by developmentally specific changes in reward-related behavior, including initiation of alcohol involvement and increased risk-taking, that reflect ongoing changes in the structure and function of reward-related circuitry.

    “Adolescence is characterized by developmentally specific changes in reward-related behavior, including initiation of alcohol involvement and increased risk-taking, that are assumed to reflect ongoing changes in the structure and function of reward-related circuitry (Ernst & Fudge, 2009; Forbes & Dahl, 2005; Spear, 2000).”

    From Sleep and circadian contributions to adolescent alcohol use disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Forbes & Dahl, 2005

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Four model types are counted as three

    Minor

    The paper lists emotion-based, motivation-based, behavioral, and evolutionary models-four types-but then says there are three.

1 of 1

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 189 · Cited by 318

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Cohn, J. F. , & Campbell, S. B. (1992).Influence of maternal depression on infant affectregulation. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.),Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Developmentalperspectives on depression(Vol. 4, pp.103–130).Rochester, NY:University of Rochester Press.
  2. Frijda, N. (1986).The emotions.New York:Cambridge University Press.
  3. Linehan, M. M. (1993a).Cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personalitydisorder.New York:Guilford Press.
  4. Clarke, G. N. , DeBar, L. L. , & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2003).Cognitive–behavioral group treatment for adolescentdepression. In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.),Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents(pp.120–134).New York:Guilford Press.
  5. Lewinsohn, P. M. , Hoberman, H. M. , Teri, L. , & Hautzinger, M. (1985).An integrative theory of unipolar depression. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.),Theoretical issues in behavioral therapy (pp.313–359).New York:Academic Press.
  6. Linehan, M. M. (1993b).Skills training manual for treating borderline personalitydisorder.New York:Guilford Press.

Authors
FORBES, E. E., & DAHL, R. E.
Affiliations
University of Pittsburgh (US)
ORCID
Venue
Development and Psychopathology
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2005-09
Volume
17
Issue
3
Pages
827-850
ISSN
  • 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-2198
DOI
10.1017/s095457940505039x
PMC
PMC2129134
OpenAlex
W2172080018
Semantic Scholar
8e1cad3647f6e9754abf577fe06d94aae94104c9
Cited by
318
References
189
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 28
FWCI
4.14
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 61 d)
Locations
  • Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R24MH067346, R24; MH67346, T32MH018269)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
positive affect, child and adolescent depression, major depressive disorder, reward processing, developmental psychopathology, early-onset depression, emotion regulation, motivation, negative affect, depression treatment
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Affect, Brain, Child, Depression, Evoked Potentials, Female, Humans, Male, Nerve Net, Puberty

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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