Bioethics and Human Rights: A Historical Perspective
Abstract
Bioethics and human rights were conceived in the aftermath of the Holocaust, when moral outrage reenergized the outmoded concepts of “medical ethics” and “natural rights,” renaming them “bioethics,” and “human rights” to give them new purpose. Originally, the principles of bioethics were a means for protecting human rights, but through a historical accident, bioethical principles came to be considered as fundamental. In this paper I reflect on the parallel development and accidental divorce of bioethics and human rights to urge their reconciliation.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Commentators have called India's reservation system among the most radical policies globally.
“Reservations in India have been described as one of the world's most radical policies [25] (see [164] for more).”
From Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond
Sambasivan, N., Arnesen, E., Hutchinson, B., Doshi, T., & Prabhakaran, V. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3442188.3445896 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“Reservations in India have been described as one of the world’s most radical policies [25] (see [164] for more).”
BackgroundBaker, R. (2002) · The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine · doi:10.1076/jmep.27.4.447.8606 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“In bioethically active American and Europe, but not in bioethically quiescent Japan, the public accepts clinical acts ± from allowances of death to organ transplantation ± that only a few decades earlier were considered debatable, and perhaps even unacceptable (Baker, 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHuman Dignity and Human Rights
Andorno, R. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2512-6_66 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
DeCamp, M. W., Lehmann, L. S., Jaeel, P., & Horwitch, C. (2018) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m17-3361 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Respect is also a critical component of global health ethics frameworks that emphasize solidarity (collective obligations based on social reciprocity) (48, 49).”
BackgroundThe Cambridge World History of Medical Ethics
Nie, J., Tsuchiya, T., & Li, L. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Akhtar, M. U., Bhatti, M. E., & Fredericks, S. (2024) · Nursing Ethics · doi:10.1177/09697330241272794 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“12 In addition to these historical developments in law and moral philosophy, multiple in fl uential events in American history played a crucial role in the development of bioethics.”
GENETIC ENHANCEMENT – A THREAT TO HUMAN RIGHTS?
Fenton, E. (2007) · Bioethics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00564.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The Ethics of Online Controlled Experiments (A/B Testing)
Polonioli, A., Ghioni, R., Greco, C., Juneja, P., Tagliabue, J., Watson, D., & Floridi, L. (2023) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-023-09644-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“But alternative frameworks tend to converge upon closer scrutiny, meaning that other frameworks will likely accord with the conclusions of this paper (Baker, 2001).”
The importance of getting the ethics right in a pandemic treaty
Schaefer, G. O., Atuire, C., Kaur, S., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(23)00364-x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Remarks on disability rights legislation
Gordon, J., & Tavera, F. L. (2018) · Equality Diversity and Inclusion An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-12-2016-0114 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Discourses of European Practitioners in the Tradition of the Hippocratic Texts
Nutton, V. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.026 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
What is the History of Medical Ethics?
Baker, R., & McCullough, L. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.002 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Discourses of Bioethics in the United Kingdom
Boyd, K. M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.041 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Conduct of clinical trials in developing countries
Kasper, C. K. (2002) · Haemophilia · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2516.2002.00594.x · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Baker, R. (2024) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/15247.001.0001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman Rights and Cultural Identity
Gordon, J. (2015) · Baltic Journal of Law & Politics · doi:10.1515/bjlp-2015-0021 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Discourses of Bioethics in the United States
Jonsen, A. R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.040 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Human Rights in Bioethics–Theoretical and Applied
Gordon, J. (2012) · Ethical Theory and Moral Practice · doi:10.1007/s10677-012-9365-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The history of human rights can be traced back to the pre-ancient notion of a natural right, for example, the Code of Hammurabi (1800 BC), Aristotle’s famous distinction between natural and legal rights (Nicomachean Ethics V, 10), the principles of Judaism and Christianity, English constitutional history (e.g. Magna C…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Discourses of Bioethics in Latin America
Mainetti, J. A. (2009) · Philosophy and medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9350-0_2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
An organizational perspective on ethics as a form of regulation
Hoeyer, K., & Lynöe, N. (2009) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-009-9210-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“It was focused on clinical research and formally only patients covered by the German health insurance were included; accordingly inmates in the concentration camps and so-called subhuman beings (which was the Nazi-terminology at the time) were not protected by the Reichsrundschreiben ( Baker 2001 ).”
BackgroundAndorno, R. H. O.-0.-2.-8. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203075005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Medical Ethics through the Life Cycle in Europe and the Americas
Baker, R., & McCullough, L. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.009 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationIntroduction to Scientific Integrity and Research Ethics
Koepsell, D. (2016) · SpringerBriefs in ethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51277-8_1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Neuroethics in the Era of Teleneurology
Young, M. J. (2022) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0041-1741496 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Britain and the United States
Baker, R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.038 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationGordijn, B., & ten Have, H. A. M. J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2512-6_131 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Barros, C. B. (2009) · Acta bioethica · doi:10.4067/s1726-569x2009000100006 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Africa
Wasunna, A. A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.021 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Silva, M. D., Lew, C. D., Lundy, L., Lang, K. R., Melamed, I., & Shaul, R. Z. (2015) · Perspectives in biology and medicine · doi:10.1353/pbm.2016.0012 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Schmidt, U. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.056 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Discourses of Philosophical Medical Ethics
Baker, R., & McCullough, L. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.020 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Ethics of Experimenting on Human Subjects
Lederer, S. E. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.051 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
López, A. S., Leisewitz, A. V., Bravo, P., & Llovet, A. N. (2023) · Revista Colombiana de Bioética · doi:10.18270/rcb.v18i2.4372 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Disrupting the “near human” in contemporary xenotransplantation
Sharp, L. A. (2025) · BioSocieties · doi:10.1057/s41292-025-00354-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Enhancement, Human Nature, and Human Rights
Albers, M. (2014) · Ius gentium · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8672-0_16 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Union College’s Rapaport Everyday Ethics Across the Curriculum Initiative
Pease, A., Baker, R. L., & Society for Ethics Across the Curriculum (2009) · Teaching Ethics · doi:10.5840/tej2009922 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman Subjects in Globalized Health Research
Constantin, A., & Andorno, R. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197528297.003.0019 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Japanese Doctors’ Experimentation, 1932–1945, and Medical Ethics
Nie, J., Tsuchiya, T., & Li, L. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.055 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Eighteenth-Century Britain
McCullough, L. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.032 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ethics in Health Policy for Allergy : A Practical Approach for Decision-Makers
Behrmann, J. (2012) · doi:10.71781/26301 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Discourses of Roman Catholic Medical Ethics
Amundsen, D. W. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.016 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe
Wear, A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.029 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Discourses of Confucian Medical Ethics
Fan, R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.013 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Normative approaches and activism in global bioethics
Gordijn, B., & ten Have, H. (2015) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-015-9652-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“One of the most important advantages is that human rights discourse is fairly well known worldwide and enjoys a great degree of acceptance (Andorno 2009; Ashcroft 2010; Baker 2001; Fenton and Arras 2010; Gordijn and ten Have 2014; Gordon 2012).”
BackgroundDo We Need Rights in Bioethics Discourse?
Sim, J. (2020) · The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine · doi:10.1093/jmp/jhaa004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Clinical Bioethics and Its Interface with Legal Medicine
Cotler, M. P. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_40 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Discourses of Bioethics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe
Gefenas, E. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.043 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Andorno, R. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817338.013.13 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Discourses of Islamic Medical Ethics
İlkılıç, İ. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.019 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Relevance of Human Rights for Dealing with the Challenges Posed by Genetics
Andorno, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108676106.027 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pernick, M. S. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bioethics in Health Policy Development: A Primer for Decision-Makers
Behrmann, J. (2012) · Papyrus : Institutional Repository (Université de Montréal) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Republican Egalitarian Approach to Bioethics
Filc, D., Davidovich, N., & Gottlieb, N. (2015) · International Journal of Health Services · doi:10.1177/0020731415594601 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Discourses of Orthodox Christian Medical Ethics
H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.015 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Ancient Europe
von Staden, H. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Fissell, M. E. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.048 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Medical Ethics and Communism in the Soviet Union
Lichterman, B. L. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.057 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Human Rights Approach to Bioethics
Andorno, R. (2016) · International library of ethics, law, and the new medicine/The international library of ethics, law, and the new medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43419-3_3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in China
Nie, J. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.023 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century France
Nye, R. A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.034 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany
Maehle, A., & Tröhler, U. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.036 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bioética frente a los derechos animales: tensión en las fronteras de la filosofía moral
Leyton, F. (2015) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bioethics and Turkey: Crossroads and challenges
Şemin, S., & Aras, Ş. (2007) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.2990/26_1_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bioética e direitos humanos: tratamento teórico da interface
de Oliveira, A. A. S. (2010) · Revista de Direito Sanitário · doi:10.11606/issn.2316-9044.v11i1p65-94 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Eighteenth- to Twentieth-Century Russia and Soviet Union
Lichterman, B. L., & Yarovinsky, M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.037 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in the Ninth- to Fourteenth-Century Middle East
Weisser, U. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.027 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Ethics of Military Medical Research in the United States during the Cold War
Moreno, J. D. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.059 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Discourses of Bioethics in Western Europe
Mori, M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.042 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Eighteenth-Century France and Germany
Lindemann, M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.030 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Ethics of Experimenting on Animal Subjects
Maehle, A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.050 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Baker, R. (2005) · Politics and Ethics Review · doi:10.3366/per.2005.1.2.188 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMedical Ethics through the Life Cycle in Buddhist India
Young, K. K. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Medical Ethics through the Life Cycle in Japan
Kimura, R., & Sakai, S. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Medical Ethics and Communism in Eastern Europe
Blasszauer, B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.058 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Discourses of Practitioners in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany
Maehle, A., & Tröhler, U. (2009) · Durham Research Online (Durham University) · doi:10.7892/boris.73754 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ethics and Health Policy in the United Kingdom and the United States: Legislation and Regulation
Fox, D. M., & Κlein, R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.063 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Appendix: Biographies: Who Was Who in the History of Medical Ethics
Baker, R., & McCullough, L. B. (2008) · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.066 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Discourses of Hindu Medical Ethics
Young, K. K. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.011
History of Public Health Ethics in the United States
Lerner, B. H., & Bayer, R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.062
Medical Ethics through the Life Cycle in China
Nie, J. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Legal and Quasilegal Regulation of Practitioners and Practice in the United States
Latham, S. R., & Mohr, J. C. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.049
Defining and Redefining Life and Death
Veatch, R. M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.065
Ethical Issues in Organ Transplantation in the United States
Swazey, J. P., & Fox, R. C. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.064
Nelkin, D., & Rosner, D. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.061
The Discourses of Bioethics in Sub-Saharan Africa
Wasunna, A. A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.047
The Discourses of Practitioners in Eighteenth-Century North America
Burns, C. R. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.033
The Discourses of Early Christian Medical Ethics
Amundsen, D. W. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.014
The Discourses of Jewish Medical Ethics
Zohar, N. J. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.018
Colonialism, Imperialism, and the History of Latin American Medical Ethics
Tealdi, J. C. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.054
The Discourses of Practitioners in Medieval and Renaissance Europe
Bergdolt, K. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.028
The Discourses of Buddhist Medical Ethics
Young, K. K. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.012
A CHRONOLOGY OF MEDICAL ETHICS
Baker, R., & McCullough, L. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.004
Self-citationThe Discourses of Practitioners in Japan
Kimura, R., & Sakai, S. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.024
The Discourses of Protestant Medical Ethics
Ferngren, G. B. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.017
The Discourses of Practitioners in the Modern and Contemporary Islamic Middle East
Rispler‐Chaim, V. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.039
International Ethics of Human Subjects Research in the Late Twentieth Century
Brody, B. A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.053
The Discourses of Bioethics in East Asia
Fan, R., & Nudeshima, J. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.045
Medical Ethics through the Life Cycle in Hindu India
Young, K. K. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.005
Medical Ethics and the Military in South Africa during Apartheid: Judging History
Orr, W. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521888790.060
- Authors
- BAKER, R.
- Affiliations
- Union College (US)
- Corresponding author
- BAKER, ROBERT
- ORCID
- BAKER, ROBERT
- Venue
- Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2001-06-29
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 241-252
- ISSN
- 0963-1801 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-2147
- OpenAlex
- W2044788044
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2018: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 0.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Ethics and bioethics in healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Medical and Health Sciences Research
- Social Sciences › Law › Legal Rights and Human Rights
- Keywords
- bioethics, human rights, history of bioethics, Holocaust, medical ethics, natural rights, bioethical principles
- MeSH terms
- Asia, Bioethics, Europe, Helsinki Declaration, Humans, Human Experimentation, Human Rights, Political Systems, Social Justice, United Nations, United States, Holocaust, Internationality, History, 20th Century
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
