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Cited by 4Historical Influence and Diplomacy

The Woman Who Invented Notepaper: Towards a Comparative Historiography of Paper and Print

Open access
BARRETT, T. H.·2011·Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland
DOI 10.1017/s1356186311000186
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Abstract

Comparative writing about the history of science and technology in different cultures tends to assume that differences in the ways in which these cultures write their histories are not important. But this is unlikely to be the case. The comparative lack of historical writing about printing in China by European standards should not in itself lead us to conclude that print only played a minor role there, any more than the tendency to downplay the importance of paper among historians of the European book means that its use in Europe was less significant than in other cultures. That in China the relative balance of the historical record is the opposite of the one that we tend to assume on the basis of the European experience is demonstrated here by contrasting the dearth of information about early printing with the commemoration even of relatively marginal cultural figures through the traditional Chinese historiography of paper making. But only tentative suggestions can be made as to why these differences in historical writing may have occurred.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Barrett argues that comparative histories of paper and printing must account for how different cultures wrote about these technologies, not only what they invented. Using Chinese and European examples, he shows that Chinese historiography commemorated papermaking and paper-related figures far more than early printing, while Western book history often subordinated paper to print.

Key findings

In Chinese sources, paper is documented from close to its development, including Cai Lun’s 105 CE presentation of improved writing paper, whereas early printing remains obscure; a purported 636 CE printed book date rests on a sixteenth-century history and is judged unreliable by Cao Zhi. Xue Tao (c.768–831) is repeatedly credited from about the late ninth century with requesting smaller sheets for her poems around 806; Li Kuangwen says she did not invent “Pineflower Slips” but prompted a notepaper format later adopted by other poets. Even technical Chinese works such as the *Tiangong kaiwu* discuss papermaking but not woodblock printing, and detailed accounts of Chinese printing appear only with nineteenth-century foreign observers; the 855 medical print by Hegan Ji is a rare transmitted-source exception. European historiography tends to let print overshadow paper, as in Febvre and Martin’s treatment, while Chinese historiography often reverses that emphasis; Barrett suggests this divergence reflects cultural values and historiographical bias, not simply technological importance.

Methods

Historiographical and comparative essay, not a quantitative study; it examines transmitted Chinese and European sources, secondary scholarship, and anecdotes about paper and printing. The focus is on information-technology hardware—paper and printing—between antiquity and modernity, with case studies of Cai Lun, Fazang, Wu Zetian, Xue Tao, Zhu Xi, Hegan Ji, and European book historians. The analysis is interpretive: it contrasts the presence and absence of documentation and traces how later writers repeated or embellished earlier references.

Limitations

The author states that hypotheses about why the historiographies differ remain tentative and cannot be addressed simply; the discussion is not exhaustive and excludes East Asia outside China despite possible benefits. The author notes reliance on *argumentum ex silentio* for Chinese printing and that missing records may be happenstance or over-familiarity; some claims, such as Wu Zetian’s possible printing involvement, are suspicions without incontrovertible proof. Evident from the text: the essay depends on transmitted sources and secondary literature, with no new archaeological or archival evidence, and it acknowledges source-reliability problems in works such as the *Qingyi lu* and *Yunxian zalu*.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s1356186311000186

Cites

44 of 44 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 58 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Xue Tao asked paper manufacturers to make smaller sheets for her poems, rather than producing the paper herself.

    “the earliest source, as we shall see, is quite clear that she simply asked the manufacturers to produce sheets of a smaller size that might produce both aesthetic and economic benefits when used as the medium for her poems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] source

      The available Introduction passages describe the book’s scope but do not discuss Xue Tao or sheets made for her poems. Searches for her name and for smaller sheets made by papermakers returned no relevant passage, so our copy cannot verify whether she commissioned the paper rather than making it herself. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingnone given

    Opposition to paper came not from the cultural creators but from the lower ranks of the literate, among the scribes accustomed to toiling over the earlier cheap alternative to silk: thin wooden strips that could take but one or two columns of carefully written characters each.

    “Where one finds opposition is not from the cultural creators but from the lower ranks of the literate, among the scribes accustomed to toiling over the earlier cheap alternative to silk: thin wooden strips that could take but one or two columns of carefully written characters each.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The sources make it abundantly clear that paper was something much appreciated by those who made use of it to transmit their writings to us.

    “And in any case our sources make it abundantly clear that paper was something much appreciated by those who made use of it to transmit their writings to us.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationcitation

    The appearance of paper and print in the different sources bequeathed by different cultures cannot be presumed to have been unaffected by the different perceptions of the cultural values of the technologies in question.

    “that the appearance of paper and print in the different sources bequeathed by different cultures cannot be presumed to have been unaffected by the different perceptions of the cultural values of the technologies in question.4”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Differences in the balance of historical records between cultures reflect differences in cultural values rather than only accidents of source survival.
  • Interpretationreasoning

    There are at least some prima facie grounds for suspecting that the relative importance assumed in Western historiography by printing in comparison to paper represents a cultural bias, an outcome of Eurocentrism, rather than the outcome of a self-evident truth.

    “there are at least some prima facie grounds for the suspicion that the relative importance assumed in Western historiography by printing in comparison to paper represents no more than a cultural bias, an outcome of Eurocentrism, rather than the outcome of a self-evident truth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Differences in the balance of historical records between cultures reflect differences in cultural values rather than only accidents of source survival.
  • May combine two claims. 38
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 36

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In China, the relative balance of the historical record is the opposite of what is assumed from the European experience: information about early printing is scarce, while traditional Chinese historiography of paper making commemorates even relatively marginal cultural figures.

    “That in China the relative balance of the historical record is the opposite of the one that we tend to assume on the basis of the European experience is demonstrated here by contrasting the dearth of information about early printing with the commemoration even of relatively marginal cultural figures through the traditional Chinese historiography of paper making.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Ultimately there is nothing to show in this or other contemporary religious works that employ such metaphors when the author envisages a seal, and when a printing block.

    “For ultimately there is nothing to show in this or other contemporary religious works that employ such metaphors when the author envisages a seal, and when a printing block.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In the case of an innovation in the production of paper about a century or so later, the sources make it quite clear that a woman was responsible, and a woman who under no circumstances would have been accorded a biography in the Standard Histories along with the very small minority of empresses and other women of very high status who were commemorated in this way.

    “Yet in the case of an innovation in the production of paper about a century or so later, our sources make it quite clear that a woman was responsible, and a woman who under no circumstances would have been accorded a biography in the Standard Histories along with the very small minority of empresses and other women of very high status who were commemorated in this way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    There are no signs of regret from China's literati at the advent of paper; rather, it made possible for them a new era of freer self-expression in poetry, painting and calligraphy.

    “There are no signs of regret from China's literati at the advent of paper; rather, it made possible for them a new era of freer self-expression in poetry, painting and calligraphy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The author timed the completion of such a rubbing at the 'Forest of Steles' museum in Xi'an at 45 minutes, which shows that even reproducing an unwieldy, fixed vertical surface allowed for a form of mass production.

    “This was somewhat slow -I have timed the completion of such a copy at the 'Forest of Steles' museum in Xi'an at 45 minutes -but this shows that even reproducing an unwieldy, fixed vertical surface allowed for a form of mass production”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The recent work of Jonathan M. Bloom on paper in the Islamic world is the one clear exception known to the author to the general assumption that differing historiographies have no impact.

    “The one clear exception to this generalisation known to me is the recent work of Jonathan M. Bloom on paper in the Islamic world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Chinese historiography might be used as evidence of differences in attitudes to technology, and it displayed biases of its own.

    “This, of course, is not to deny altogether that Chinese historiography might be used as evidence of differences in attitudes to technology, still less to suggest that it did not display biases of its own.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An overall comparison of Greek and Chinese science and medicine has already been achieved fairly straightforwardly, without unduly lengthy consideration of possible methodological pitfalls.

    “An overall comparison of Greek and Chinese science and medicine, for example, has already been achieved fairly straightforwardly, without unduly lengthy consideration of possible methodological pitfalls.2”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Different traditions of historiography potentially are likely to approach technology in different ways, and not necessarily consistently in the same way.

    “Plainly different traditions of historiography potentially are likely to approach technology in different ways -and not necessarily consistently in the same way at that.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Hitherto, with one notable exception, the assumption seems always to have been that differing historiographies of China, Europe, and elsewhere have had no impact on comparative understanding and have not been worth mentioning.

    “Hitherto, with one notable exception to be dealt with very shortly, the assumption seems always to have been that the differing historiographies of China, Europe, and elsewhere have had no impact on our comparative understanding, and have therefore not been worth mentioning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The high capital costs of Gutenberg's letterpress system necessitated vigorous marketing of its advantages right from the start.

    “No doubt the high capital costs of Gutenberg's letterpress system necessitated vigorous marketing of its advantages right from the start.9”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    P. F. Kornicki has pointed out that the lack of mention of early printing elsewhere in East Asia is even more astonishing than the few paltry references that do occur in Chinese sources.

    “In fact, as P. F. Kornicki has astutely pointed out, the lack of mention of early printing elsewhere in East Asia is even more astonishing than the few paltry references that do occur in Chinese sources”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    The extent of reflections on methodological or practical problems of comparison raised by the Chinese case has not attracted much comment so far.

    “It should not be surprising therefore that the extent of reflections on either the methodological or even simply the practical problems of comparison raised by the Chinese case do not appear to have attracted much comment so far.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Consideration of China in a comparative context in the history of technology and science was not pursued with much vigour until Joseph Needham in the second half of the twentieth century.

    “As far as concerns the history of technology and science, moreover, the consideration of China in a comparative context cannot be said to have been pursued with much vigour until the time of Joseph Needham (1900-1993) in the second half of the twentieth century.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Joseph Needham could occasionally make sweeping generalisations about the 'Confucian' mindset of China's ruling elite, attitudes that he could have taken as applying to the legacy of Chinese historiography, but today all such broadly explanatory hypotheses look in retrospect rather 'Orientalistic'.

    “As is well known, Joseph Needham could occasionally make similarly sweeping generalisations about the 'Confucian' mindset of China's ruling eliteattitudes that he could have taken as applying to the legacy of Chinese historiographybut today all such broadly explanatory hypotheses look in retrospect rather 'Orientalistic'.12”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Problems of comparison will in all likelihood vary from context to context.

    “It is possible to perceive already, though, that such problems will in all likelihood vary from context to context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Needham was well aware of the temptation to oversimplify the great diversity of what we term 'China', especially over the course of time.

    “Needham was, however, to his credit well aware of the temptation to oversimplify the great diversity of what we term 'China', especially over the course of time.13”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In comparative astronomy at a later historical stage, problems of comparison have been seen as fraught with unresolved philosophical issues.

    “Yet at a later historical stage, in the area of comparative astronomy, the problems of comparison have by contrast been seen as fraught with unresolved philosophical issues.3”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Even a generation earlier, The Coming of the Book has Martin stating plainly that printing would have been impossible without the introduction of paper, since only the very best and most expensive vellum can be used in a printing press.

    “even a generation earlier the co-written The Coming of the Book finds him stating plainly that printing would have been “impossible” without the introduction of paper, since only the very best and most expensive vellum can be used in a printing press.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Very little discussion of alternative cultural values in relation to sources on printing and paper exists, save for Jonathan M. Bloom's research, which refers to Marshall G. S. Hodgson for the notion that medieval Muslim historians, focused more on the responsible acts of individuals, tend to ignore such matters as the introduction and diffusion of technology.

    “But again there would seem to be very little discussion of alternative cultural values in relation to our sources on printing and paper save for in the research of Jonathan M. Bloom, who refers to Marshall G. S. Hodgson for the notion that medieval Muslim historians, focused more on the responsible acts of individuals, tend to ignore such matters as the introduction and diffusion of technology.11”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bloom comments explicitly that Western histories have tended to allow the story of print to overshadow that of paper, mentioning Henri-Jean Martin for giving relatively short shrift to paper in his 1994 History and Power of Writing.

    “In introducing his topic Bloom comments explicitly on the way in which Western histories have tended to allow the story of print to overshadow that of paper, mentioning specifically Henri-Jean Martin for giving “relatively short shrift” to the latter in his 1994 History and Power of Writing. 5”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cai Lun is listed in the early encyclopaedia of origins, the eleventh-century Shiwu jiyuan, which suggests no names at all for Bacon's other inventions.

    “But he is listed in the early encyclopaedia of origins, the eleventh-century Shiwu jiyuan , which suggests no names at all for Bacon's other inventions.23”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    This material was certainly cheap, and in an age before deforestation readily available, which is perhaps why its use persisted in Japan for centuries longer.

    “This material was certainly cheap, and in an age before deforestation readily available, which is perhaps why its use persisted in Japan for centuries longer.26”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    We know that seals bearing very large numbers of characters were used at this time for imprinting.

    “We know that seals bearing very large numbers of characters were used at this time for imprinting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The scribal preference for the late Han dynasty equivalent of 'hard copy' may also have been influenced by the readily erasable nature of records on wood, unlike ink on paper, or maybe administrative files were suited to the steady accumulation of short passages of text.

    “Perhaps the scribal preference for the late Han dynasty equivalent of 'hard copy' was also influenced by the readily erasable nature of records on wood, unlike ink on paper, or maybe administrative (usually fiscal) files were suited to the steady accumulation of short passages of text.27”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Bacon's omission of paper from his list, even if due to no more than Eurocentrism, was certainly appropriate.

    “In retrospect, however, it must be said that Bacon's omission of paper from his list, even if due to no more than what we now call Eurocentrism, was certainly appropriate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Chinese researcher Cao Zhi has rehearsed in great detail a number of reasons for concluding that the year 636 reference can only be the result of a careless error rather than the genuine transmission of reliable information.

    “In fact the Chinese researcher Cao Zhi has already rehearsed in great detail a number of reasons for concluding that this reference can only be the result of a careless error rather than the genuine transmission of reliable information.17”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xue Tao's calligraphy was highly regarded, but no genuine examples of it survive.

    “Her calligraphy was also highly regarded, though no genuine examples have survived.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41]

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    As Joerg Plassen has shown, there is some discussion as to whether the haiyin text was composed by Fazang's teacher or by his fellow-student under that teacher, the Korean monk Uisang, with whom Fazang is known to have kept in touch after his return to Korea.

    “As Joerg Plassen has shown, there is also some discussion as to whether it was composed by Fazang's teacher or by his fellow-student under that teacher, the Korean monk Ȗisang (625-702), with whom Fazang is known to have kept in touch after his return to Korea.30”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The hostility of contemporary and later male historians to Wu Zetian's unique usurpation of a position of power otherwise reserved exclusively throughout Chinese history by males means that we are left guessing from scraps of information that seldom build up into incontrovertible proof, which, as far as printing and Wu Zetian are concerned, leaves us with strong suspicions well worth voicing, but

    “As with all too many of the activities of the Emperor/Empress, the hostility of contemporary and later male historians to her unique usurpation of a position of power otherwise reserved exclusively throughout Chinese history by males means that we are left guessing from scraps of information that seldom build up into incontrovertible proof which, as far as concerns printing and Wu Zetian, leaves”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Needham's immediate point is that all three of these discoveries were made in China before Europe.

    “The immediate point made by Needham is of course that all three of these discoveries were made in China before Europe”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Cai Lun was a palace eunuch, precisely the sort of person normally viewed with antagonism by the regular bureaucrats who controlled the writing of official and even most unofficial history.

    “Cai Lun was, after all, a palace eunuch, precisely the sort of person normally viewed with antagonism by the regular bureaucrats who controlled the writing of official (and even most unofficial) history”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Bacon could legitimately have substituted paper for his mention of printing, for had his gaze carried even as far as Eastern Europe, he might have noted that the Ottoman empire, without the substantial use of printing but with paper and his other two inventions, still constituted a formidable enemy, and indeed it would remain so for at least a century after his time.

    “He could legitimately have substituted it for his mention of printing, for had his gaze carried even as far as Eastern Europe, he might have noted that the Ottoman empire, without the substantial use of printing but with paper and his other two inventions, still constituted a formidable enemy, and indeed it would remain so for at least a century after his time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Modern biographers of Yuan Zhen refute, using contemporary documentation, the suggestion that Yuan Zhen and Xue Tao met.

    “modern biographers of Yuan Zhen, whose life is known about in some detail, examine the evidence of this source and refute on the basis of contemporary documentation the very suggestion that the two even met.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xue Tao's poetry was included in anthologies by 900 and continued to be appreciated over the following centuries.

    “it was incorporated in anthologies by 900 and continued to be appreciated from century to century.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xue Tao appears in the miscellaneous section of Su Yijian's historical sources on paper, and a poem about paper mentioning her name is also there.

    “It is true that Xue is placed in the 'miscellaneous' section of Su's historical sources on paper, but she is there none the less, as is one of the poems about paper that mentions her name.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It would not have taken much reflection to see that short texts on lighter horizontal blocks made of wood could be multiplied much more quickly, yet would overcome the practical size limitation on hand-held stamps.

    “and it would not have taken much reflection to see that short texts on lighter horizontal blocks made of wood could be multiplied much more quickly, yet would overcome the practical size limitation on hand-held stamps.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Despite the bias of these historians against recording the activities of women, biographies of empresses may be found in almost all the 'Standard Dynastic Histories' officially recognised in imperial China, and biographies of eminent women more often than not, whereas eunuch biographies occur in significantly less than half of them.

    “one notes that despite the bias of these historians against recording the activities of women also, biographies of empresses may be found in almost all the 'Standard Dynastic Histories' officially recognised in imperial China, and biographies of eminent women more often than not, whereas eunuch biographies occur in significantly less than half of them.21”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    In the case of printing and gunpowder, we know much more now than when Needham cited Bacon's words over a generation ago, yet any precise information on the origins of these inventions still eludes us, and probably always will, given the nature of our transmitted sources.

    “in the case of printing and gunpowder at least we know much more now even than when Needham cited Bacon's words over a generation ago, yet any precise information on the origins of these inventions still eludes us, and probably (barring unforeseen archaeological discoveries) always will, given the nature of our transmitted sources.15”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Authors seeking to address posterity acted on their own account, unlike government scribes, and therefore usually would have had to pay for writing materials, so the lower price of paper by comparison with silk must have been a factor.

    “Authors seeking to address posterity of course acted on their own account, unlike government scribes, and therefore usually would have had to pay for writing materials, so the lower price of paper by comparison with silk must have been a factor”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Though in the mid-second century writers apologised for using the cheaper material, such hesitations do not appear to have persisted.

    “and though in the mid-second century we find writers apologising for using the cheaper material, such hesitations do not appear to have persisted.25”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This and other later references to a 'single vermilion stroke' collected by Plassen could be construed as indicating the cutting of the 210 characters upon a single surface so that the single application of red ink to the whole could reproduce them at a stroke.

    “This, and other later references to a “single vermilion stroke” collected by Plassen could be construed as indicating the cutting of the 210 characters upon a single surface so that the single application of red ink to the whole could reproduce them at a stroke.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The most recent work on such rubbings notes that in 649 a Chinese envoy to India had retrieved, by means of a rubbing, an impression of the Buddha's footprint.

    “and secondly that in 649 a Chinese envoy to India had retrieved, by means of a rubbing, an impression of the Buddha's footprint.34”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Though Fazang could well have been familiar with printing off woodblocks, there is some reason to believe that he could also have known of a large seal containing 210 characters, and the use of this device might equally have prompted his observations about how complex structures like those within language and those which he wishes to argue for within the enlightened mind can come into being instan

    “But though Fazang could well have been familiar with printing off woodblocks, there is some reason to believe that he could also have known of a large seal containing 210 characters, and the use of this device might equally have prompted his observations about how complex structures like those within language and those which he wishes to argue for within the enlightened mind can come into being”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some of Fazang's writings strongly imply that he was familiar with the process of printing, which is why it has been suggested that he could have been involved in printing programmes on behalf of the Emperor-Empress Wu Zetian.

    “Some of his writings strongly imply that he was familiar with the process of printing, which is why it has been suggested that he could have been involved in printing programmes on behalf of the Emperor-Empress Wu Zetian (625-705).29”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The most recent work on such rubbings notes that the government department charged with making such copies was closed from 663 to 705, precisely the time when Wu Zetian held power.

    “The most recent work on such rubbings notes two intriguing facts: first, that the government department charged with making such copies was closed from 663 to 705, precisely the time when Wu Zetian held power”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Anthropomorphic discourse personifying individual Four Treasures items has a long history, and the four are already treated together as friends in Han Yu's biography of a writing brush; it is hard to find the full set treated this way earlier.

    “though anthropomorphic discourse personifying individual items among the 'Four Treasures' has a long history, and the four are already treated together in this way as 'friends' in the celebrated biography of a writing brush by her contemporary Han Yu (768-824), it is hard to find the full set treated in this way any earlier.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Paper is far older than Bacon's three items-a product of antiquity, albeit East Asian antiquity, rather than of subsequent ages.

    “For it is both far older than his three items -a product of antiquity, albeit East Asian antiquity, rather than of subsequent ages”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Explicit recorded instances of printing are few and far between, but there is plenty of scope for reconstructing the environment in which printing emerged, an environment in many ways very different from that of pre-Gutenberg Europe.

    “Explicit recorded instances of printing are certainly few and far between, but there is plenty of scope, for example, for reconstructing the environment in which it emerged, an environment in many ways very different from that of pre-Gutenberg Europe.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Xue Tao exemplifies a woman honoured as someone who knew her place in the world of elite creativity, though the materials gathered by cited authors should be examined more extensively to trace her reputation.

    “Xue Tao, on this understanding, would exemplify a woman who was honoured as someone who knew her place in the world of elite creativity, though ideally in order to confirm this interpretation the materials gathered by the authors cited above should be examined more extensively to trace the development of her reputation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Assessing Chinese sources on printing versus paper is always more difficult than studying the rise of European printing, because one is driven towards argumentum ex silentio, whereas the lack of records of the printing process could be due to happenstance or over-familiarity.

    “Assessing Chinese sources on printing as against paper is always going to be more difficult than studying the rise of European printing, in that one is always driven towards the argumentum ex silentio, whereas it is perfectly possible, for instance, that the lack of any record of the printing process is due to mere happenstance, if not to sheer over-familiarity with the technique.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fan Jiawei demonstrates that in the ninth century it was common for disgraced officials, especially those exiled to the tropics, to redeem themselves by compiling useful works on tropical medicine.

    “More recently some further light on the background to this event has been shed by the research of Fan Jiawei , who demonstrates that in the ninth century it was a common practice for disgraced officials, especially those exiled to the tropics of the south, to redeem themselves by compiling useful works on tropical medicine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The highly technical business of scroll mounting is described as early as 847, but even a pre-modern Chinese work specifically devoted to technology like the Tiangong kaiwu has not a word on the use of woodblock to print.

    “The highly technical business of scroll mounting is described as early as 847, but even a pre-modern Chinese work specifically devoted to technology like the Tiangong kaiwu has not a word to say on the use of woodblock to print.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    While the Ming found paper production interesting, as the Tiangong kaiwu attests, the process of printing still was not.

    “But while the production of paper was something that the Ming found interesting, as the early seventeenth-century encyclopaedia of technology the Tiangong kaiwu attests, the process of printing still was not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Taking credit for circulating someone else's medical work might have seemed more expedient, but it seems not an option anyone else during this early period felt compelled to choose.

    “Taking the credit for circulating someone else's medical work might well therefore have seemed a more expedient option, but it would seem that it was not an option that anyone else during this early period felt compelled to choose.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The names of early printers retrieved in recent times almost all come from surviving examples of their work, not from transmitted sources.

    “the names of early printers we have retrieved in more recent times almost all come from surviving examples of their work, not from transmitted sources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As a senior official needing rapid redemption late in his career, compiling his own medical work would have seemed unduly time consuming, though as a onetime examiner he had the scholarly credentials to do so.

    “But as a senior official who needed to redeem himself rapidly at a late stage in his career, compiling his own medical work would have seemed unduly time consuming, though as a onetime examiner he presumably had the scholarly credentials to do so.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Xue Tao serves as an example demonstrating the reality of different historiographies of paper and print in different cultures.

    “Here, however, she merely serves as an example to demonstrate the reality of different historiographies of paper and print in different cultures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The difference between historiographies of paper and print in different cultures exists and should be treated seriously.

    “even so that such a difference exists and should be treated seriously is, one would hope, beyond dispute.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Zhu Xi appreciated that paper made books more available, but explicitly said printing, by eliminating copying, made close reading much sloppier than before.

    “From his writings we know that he appreciated that the introduction of paper had made books more available, but he says quite explicitly that printing, by eliminating copying, made close reading much more sloppy than hitherto”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

60 of 60

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Differences in the balance of historical records between cultures reflect differences in cultural values rather than only accidents of source survival.

    “that the appearance of paper and print in the different sources bequeathed by different cultures cannot be presumed to have been unaffected by the different perceptions of the cultural values of the technologies in question.4”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Li Kuangwen's report on Xue Tao's notepaper is entirely credible.

    “No matter: the report of Li Kuangwen, at any rate, is entirely credible”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The surviving Chinese sources are representative enough to support conclusions about the relative historiographical treatment of paper and print.

    “The silence, too, is not absolute; the historiography, though not as helpful as it might be, is perhaps not entirely useless.”
3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 45 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 18

  1. Jiawei, 2008, Cong yiliao kan Zhongguo shi, 111
  2. Gardner, 1990, Learning to Be a Sage, 139
  3. Cameron, 2006, The Chinese Scholar's Desk
  4. Xianglu, 2004, Yuan Zhen nianpu xinbian, 80
  5. Xiaoxuan, 1980, Yuan Zhen nianpu, 113
  6. Xunchu, 2006, Tangren yishi huibian, 1128
  7. Zhao, 1979, Ｔang guoshi pu, 55
  8. Pengzhou, 1983, Xue Tao shijian, 52
  9. des Rotours, 1968, Courtisanes Chinoises à la fin des T'ang, 28
  10. Yunsun, 1980, Wangjiang lou zhi, 66
  11. Chen, 1975, Hsün Yüeh: The Life and Reflections of an early Medieval Confucian, 84
  12. Teng, 1971, An Annotated Bibliography of Chinese Reference Works, 102
  13. Ying, 2007, The Origin of Printing in China, Ultrabold, 2, 12
  14. Jiaxi, 1974, Siku tiyao bianzheng, 863
  15. Febvre, 1997, The Coming of the Book, 30
  16. Zhi, 1994, Zhongguo yinshuashu de qiyuan, 21
  17. Connery, 1998, Writing and Authority in Early Imperial China, 65
  18. Forte, 2000, A Jewel in Indra's Net

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
BARRETT, T. H.
Corresponding author
BARRETT, T. H.
Venue
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2011-04
Volume
21
Issue
2
Pages
199-210
ISSN
  • 0035-869X (ISSN-L)
  • 2051-2066
DOI
10.1017/s1356186311000186
OpenAlex
W2321306875
Cited by
4
References
45
Citations by year
2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2016: 1
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 47 d)
Locations
  • Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (publishedVersion)
  • SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (acceptedVersion)
  • SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Historical Influence and Diplomacy
Keywords
papermaking, early printing, Chinese historiography, comparative historiography, women inventors, history of technology, history of science, Europe

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-05.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-05.

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